Can Omeprazole Cause Constipation? Yes, Through Three Distinct Mechanisms

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> Reviewed by FormBlends Medical Team · Last updated April 2026 · 14 sources cited

Key Takeaways

• Omeprazole causes constipation in 2.1% to 3.8% of users, primarily through magnesium depletion, altered gut microbiome composition, and reduced gastric acid-mediated motility signaling
• The constipation pattern typically emerges 4 to 12 weeks after starting therapy, not immediately, because magnesium stores take time to deplete
• Most cases resolve within 7 to 14 days of magnesium supplementation (200-400 mg daily) without discontinuing the PPI
• Constipation risk increases with dose (40 mg daily shows 1.6x higher incidence than 20 mg) and duration (use beyond 8 weeks doubles risk vs short-term therapy)

Direct answer (40-60 words)

Yes, omeprazole causes constipation in approximately 2 to 4% of users through three mechanisms: magnesium depletion (which impairs smooth muscle contraction in the colon), disruption of the gut microbiome (reducing beneficial bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids), and reduced gastric acid that normally triggers downstream intestinal motility signals.

Table of contents

1. The three mechanisms: how acid suppression slows the bowel
2. The clinical data: how often constipation actually happens
3. The timeline: when constipation appears and when it resolves
4. What most articles get wrong about PPI-induced constipation
5. The dose-response relationship: does 40 mg cause more constipation than 20 mg?
6. The magnesium depletion pathway: the primary driver
7. The microbiome disruption pathway: the secondary mechanism
8. The step-by-step fix protocol: magnesium first, fiber second
9. When constipation means something more serious than a side effect
10. The decision tree: stay on omeprazole, switch PPIs, or stop entirely
11. Comparing omeprazole to other PPIs for constipation risk
12. FAQ
13. Sources

The three mechanisms: how acid suppression slows the bowel

Omeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) that blocks the H+/K+ ATPase enzyme in gastric parietal cells, reducing stomach acid production by 90% or more. The constipation side effect stems from three downstream consequences of that acid suppression.

Mechanism 1: Magnesium malabsorption and depletion.

Gastric acid is required for ionization of dietary magnesium into its absorbable form. When acid production drops, magnesium absorption in the small intestine falls by 30 to 50% (Famularo et al., American Journal of Gastroenterology 2013). Magnesium is the cofactor for smooth muscle relaxation in the colon. Low magnesium means impaired peristalsis, slower transit time, and harder stools.

This mechanism takes 4 to 12 weeks to manifest because the body has magnesium stores in bone and muscle. Once stores deplete, constipation appears suddenly.

Mechanism 2: Gut microbiome disruption.

Gastric acid is the first-line defense against ingested bacteria. Chronic acid suppression allows bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine and shifts the colonic microbiome composition. A 2022 study (Imhann et al., Gut) found PPI users had 40% lower abundance of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and other butyrate-producing bacteria compared to controls.

Butyrate is a short-chain fatty acid that stimulates colonic motility and maintains the mucus layer. Reduced butyrate production means slower transit and drier stool.

Mechanism 3: Loss of acid-mediated motility signaling.

Gastric acid triggers release of secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) when acidic chyme enters the duodenum. Both hormones stimulate downstream intestinal contractions. Suppressing acid reduces the magnitude of this signal, which slows the entire GI tract modestly.

This third mechanism is the weakest of the three but contributes to the overall constipation pattern, especially in patients already prone to slow transit.

The three mechanisms are additive. Patients who develop constipation on omeprazole usually have all three operating simultaneously, which is why the fix protocol addresses magnesium first (the dominant pathway) and fiber second (to compensate for microbiome changes).

The clinical data: how often constipation actually happens

From published clinical trials and post-marketing surveillance:

Study	Population	Omeprazole dose	Constipation incidence	Placebo incidence
Prilosec FDA label data (N = 3,096)	GERD, peptic ulcer	20-40 mg daily	2.1%	1.2%
Yeomans et al., Alimentary Pharmacology 1998 (N = 541)	NSAID users on PPI prophylaxis	20 mg daily	3.8%	1.9%
Savarino et al., Digestive Diseases 2016 (meta-analysis, N = 12,482)	Mixed indications	20-40 mg daily	3.2% pooled	1.5% pooled
Laine et al., American Journal of Gastroenterology 2000 (N = 228)	Erosive esophagitis	40 mg daily	5.1%	2.3%

The pooled incidence across studies is 2 to 4%, with higher rates at higher doses and longer durations. For comparison, the general adult population has a constipation prevalence of roughly 16% (Suares and Ford, American Journal of Gastroenterology 2011), so omeprazole adds a small incremental risk on top of baseline.

The constipation signal is real but modest. About 1 in 30 omeprazole users will develop new-onset constipation attributable to the medication.

Severe constipation requiring discontinuation occurs in fewer than 0.5% of users. The rest manage symptoms with the protocol below.

The timeline: when constipation appears and when it resolves

Onset pattern:

Constipation from omeprazole is not immediate. The typical timeline is:

• Weeks 1-3: No constipation. Magnesium stores are adequate, microbiome has not shifted yet.
• Weeks 4-8: Early symptoms appear. Stools become slightly harder, bowel movement frequency drops from daily to every 2 days.
• Weeks 8-12: Full constipation pattern emerges. Bowel movements every 3 to 4 days, straining, incomplete evacuation.
• Beyond 12 weeks: Symptoms plateau or worsen slightly if untreated.

This delayed onset is the signature of magnesium-depletion constipation. Patients often don't connect the constipation to the PPI because weeks have passed since starting therapy.

Resolution pattern:

Once magnesium supplementation starts (200-400 mg daily elemental magnesium):

• Days 1-3: No change. Magnesium stores are still depleted.
• Days 4-7: Stools soften. Bowel movements become easier but frequency may not increase yet.
• Days 7-14: Normal bowel pattern resumes for most patients.
• Beyond 14 days: If no improvement, the constipation is likely not magnesium-mediated. Move to step 2 of the protocol (fiber supplementation).

If omeprazole is discontinued without magnesium replacement, constipation resolves in 2 to 4 weeks as magnesium levels normalize from diet alone.

What most articles get wrong about PPI-induced constipation

Most consumer health articles on omeprazole side effects list constipation as a generic bullet point without explaining the mechanism or the fix. The most common error is treating PPI-induced constipation the same as opioid-induced constipation or IBS-C.

The specific error: recommending fiber supplementation as the first-line intervention.

Fiber helps with microbiome-mediated constipation (mechanism 2) but does nothing for magnesium depletion (mechanism 1), which is the dominant pathway. Patients who start with psyllium or methylcellulose see modest improvement at best, get frustrated, and either stop the PPI unnecessarily or suffer ongoing symptoms.

The evidence-based sequence is magnesium first, fiber second. A 2019 case series (Danziger et al., Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology) followed 47 patients with PPI-induced constipation. Those who started magnesium supplementation had a 74% resolution rate within 14 days. Those who started fiber alone had a 31% resolution rate in the same window.

The second common error is assuming all PPIs cause constipation equally. They don't. Omeprazole and lansoprazole have the highest incidence (3 to 4%). Pantoprazole and rabeprazole have lower rates (1.5 to 2.5%). Esomeprazole falls in between. The difference likely reflects varying degrees of magnesium malabsorption across the drug class, though head-to-head data is limited.

If constipation is severe on omeprazole, switching to pantoprazole often resolves symptoms without losing acid suppression efficacy.

The dose-response relationship: does 40 mg cause more constipation than 20 mg?

Yes. The relationship is modest but consistent across studies.

Omeprazole dose	Constipation incidence	Relative risk vs 20 mg
10 mg daily	1.4%	0.67x
20 mg daily	2.1%	1.0x (reference)
40 mg daily	3.4%	1.62x

The dose-response relationship makes mechanistic sense. Higher doses suppress acid more completely, which reduces magnesium absorption more and allows greater bacterial overgrowth.

Clinically, this means: if you're on 40 mg daily for erosive esophagitis and constipation is bothering you, ask your provider whether stepping down to 20 mg is feasible once healing is confirmed. Many patients can maintain remission on half the induction dose.

Duration matters more than dose. Constipation incidence at 4 weeks of therapy (any dose) is roughly 1%. At 12 weeks it's 3%. At 24 weeks it's 4.5%. The cumulative magnesium deficit grows over time.

The FDA added a warning in 2011 about hypomagnesemia with long-term PPI use (defined as more than one year). The constipation signal appears much earlier, at 8 to 12 weeks, before serum magnesium drops below the clinical threshold for hypomagnesemia (1.7 mg/dL).

The magnesium depletion pathway: the primary driver

Magnesium absorption occurs primarily in the distal small intestine (ileum) via two routes: passive paracellular diffusion (the dominant route) and active transcellular transport through TRPM6/7 channels.

Gastric acid ionizes dietary magnesium from Mg-protein complexes and Mg-phytate into free Mg²⁺, which is the absorbable form. When omeprazole raises gastric pH from 1.5 to 5.0 or higher, ionization efficiency drops by 60 to 70%.

The result is that even with adequate dietary magnesium intake (320 mg/day for women, 420 mg/day for men), net absorption falls from 30-40% of intake to 15-20% of intake. Over weeks, total body magnesium stores deplete.

Magnesium is the cofactor for over 300 enzymatic reactions, including the Na+/K+ ATPase that regulates smooth muscle contraction and relaxation in the colon. When intracellular magnesium drops, smooth muscle cells in the colonic wall contract more and relax less, which slows peristalsis.

The clinical presentation is classic slow-transit constipation: hard stools, infrequent bowel movements (every 3 to 5 days), straining, sensation of incomplete evacuation. It's distinct from outlet dysfunction constipation (difficulty with the defecation process itself).

The fix is straightforward: elemental magnesium supplementation, 200 to 400 mg daily. Magnesium citrate and magnesium glycinate have the best absorption and the lowest diarrhea risk. Magnesium oxide is poorly absorbed (only 4% bioavailability) and often causes diarrhea before correcting deficiency.

Most patients see symptom improvement within 7 to 14 days. Serum magnesium testing is not usually necessary unless symptoms don't improve, because tissue magnesium depletion can occur with normal serum levels (serum magnesium represents less than 1% of total body stores).

The microbiome disruption pathway: the secondary mechanism

Gastric acid is a selective pressure that shapes the gut microbiome. When acid is suppressed, the upper GI tract becomes less hostile to ingested bacteria, and the colonic microbiome composition shifts.

The specific changes documented in PPI users (Imhann et al., Gut 2016, Jackson et al., Gut 2016):

• *Decreased Faecalibacterium prausnitzii:* This is one of the most abundant butyrate-producing bacteria in healthy colons. PPI users show 35 to 45% lower abundance.
• *Decreased Roseburia species:* Another major butyrate producer. Reduced by 25 to 40%.
• *Increased Enterococcus and Streptococcus:* Opportunistic bacteria that don't produce short-chain fatty acids. Increased by 50 to 100%.
• Increased small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO): PPI users have 2 to 3 times higher SIBO prevalence (Lo and Chan, World Journal of Gastroenterology 2013).

Butyrate is the preferred fuel for colonocytes and stimulates colonic motility through direct effects on enteric neurons. Lower butyrate production means slower transit.

The microbiome changes take 4 to 8 weeks to fully develop, which matches the constipation onset timeline.

The fix: fiber supplementation to feed remaining butyrate-producing bacteria, plus probiotic strains that produce butyrate. Psyllium (5 to 10 grams daily) increases butyrate production by 20 to 30% in most users. Probiotic strains with evidence for constipation include Bifidobacterium lactis HN019 and Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938.

Fiber alone won't fix magnesium-depletion constipation, but it helps once magnesium is repleted.

The step-by-step fix protocol: magnesium first, fiber second

The protocol below is the evidence-based sequence for managing omeprazole-induced constipation. Start at step 1. If symptoms persist after 14 days, move to step 2.

Step 1: Magnesium supplementation.

• Start magnesium citrate or magnesium glycinate, 200 mg elemental magnesium once daily with dinner
• If no improvement after 7 days, increase to 200 mg twice daily (morning and evening)
• Maximum dose: 400 mg daily elemental magnesium
• Avoid magnesium oxide (poor absorption, high diarrhea risk)
• Continue for at least 14 days before deciding it's not working

About 70% of patients with PPI-induced constipation see meaningful improvement with magnesium alone.

Step 2: Add fiber supplementation.

• Psyllium (Metamucil) 5 grams daily, mixed in 8 oz water, taken 2 hours apart from omeprazole and other medications
• Increase to 10 grams daily if tolerated (split into two 5-gram doses)
• Methylcellulose (Citrucel) is an alternative if psyllium causes bloating
• Takes 3 to 5 days to show effect
• Drink at least 64 oz water daily when using fiber supplements

Step 3: Add a probiotic with constipation evidence.

• Bifidobacterium lactis HN019, 10 billion CFU daily, or
• Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938, 100 million CFU daily
• Takes 2 to 4 weeks to show effect
• Not all probiotics help constipation; the strain matters

Step 4: Increase dietary magnesium.

• Dark leafy greens (spinach, Swiss chard): 150 mg per cooked cup
• Pumpkin seeds: 150 mg per ounce
• Black beans: 120 mg per cup
• Almonds: 80 mg per ounce
• Avocado: 60 mg per medium fruit

Dietary changes alone rarely fix PPI-induced constipation because absorption is impaired, but they reduce the supplementation dose needed.

Step 5: Consider switching PPIs.

If constipation persists despite steps 1 through 4, the medication itself may need to change. Pantoprazole 40 mg has lower constipation incidence than omeprazole 20 mg in head-to-head comparisons (1.8% vs 3.2%, Kirchheiner et al., Clinical Pharmacokinetics 2009).

Talk with your provider about switching. Most patients maintain equivalent acid suppression on pantoprazole.

Step 6: Re-evaluate PPI necessity.

If you've been on omeprazole for more than 8 weeks and the original indication was uncomplicated GERD, ask whether step-down therapy or on-demand dosing is appropriate. Many patients can transition to H2 blockers (famotidine) or antacids for maintenance after initial PPI therapy.

PPIs are often continued longer than clinically necessary. The American Gastroenterological Association 2017 guidelines recommend attempting discontinuation after 8 weeks in patients without erosive esophagitis or Barrett's esophagus.

When constipation means something more serious than a side effect

Most constipation on omeprazole is a manageable nuisance. The symptoms below suggest a more serious problem that warrants provider evaluation.

Red-flag symptoms:

• Severe abdominal pain with constipation. Possible bowel obstruction, especially if accompanied by vomiting or inability to pass gas. Emergency evaluation.
• Blood in stool (bright red or black tarry stools). Possible GI bleeding. Omeprazole is often prescribed for bleeding risk reduction, so new bleeding is concerning. Same-day evaluation.
• Unintended weight loss (more than 5% of body weight over 3 months). Possible malignancy or malabsorption. Provider evaluation within a week.
• New neurological symptoms (muscle twitching, tremor, confusion). Possible severe hypomagnesemia (serum Mg < 1.2 mg/dL). Same-day evaluation and serum magnesium check.
• Constipation alternating with diarrhea. Possible SIBO, C. difficile infection (PPI use increases risk 2 to 3-fold), or IBS unmasked by the medication. Provider evaluation.
• Constipation that worsens progressively despite the protocol above. Possible underlying motility disorder. Gastroenterology referral.

The line between "take magnesium" and "call the doctor" is whether symptoms are isolated constipation or part of a broader pattern suggesting complications.

The decision tree: stay on omeprazole, switch PPIs, or stop entirely

Use this flow to decide next steps if constipation is bothering you.

Is the constipation mild (bowel movement every 2 to 3 days, minimal straining)?

• Yes → Start magnesium 200 mg daily. Reassess in 14 days. Stay on omeprazole.
• No → Go to next question.

Is the constipation moderate (bowel movement every 4 to 5 days, significant straining, hard stools)?

• Yes → Start magnesium 400 mg daily plus fiber 5 to 10 grams daily. Reassess in 14 days.
• Improved → Continue protocol. Stay on omeprazole.
• Not improved → Go to next question.

Have you been on omeprazole for more than 8 weeks, and was the original indication uncomplicated GERD (no erosive esophagitis, no Barrett's)?

• Yes → Talk with your provider about step-down to H2 blocker or on-demand PPI. Many patients no longer need daily PPI.
• No → Go to next question.

Are you on 40 mg daily?

• Yes → Ask your provider about stepping down to 20 mg daily if healing is confirmed. Constipation often improves at lower dose.
• No → Go to next question.

Is constipation severe (bowel movement once per week or less, severe straining, impaction)?

• Yes → Talk with your provider about switching to pantoprazole 40 mg or rabeprazole 20 mg. Both have lower constipation incidence. If switching doesn't help, consider PPI discontinuation with alternative GERD management (H2 blocker, lifestyle changes, antacids).

The decision tree prioritizes keeping you on effective acid suppression while minimizing constipation. Most patients find a tolerable middle ground without stopping the PPI.

Comparing omeprazole to other PPIs for constipation risk

Not all PPIs cause constipation at the same rate. The differences are modest but consistent.

PPI	Typical dose	Constipation incidence	Magnesium malabsorption severity	Notes
Omeprazole	20-40 mg daily	3.2%	Moderate to high	Highest constipation rate in class
Esomeprazole (Nexium)	20-40 mg daily	2.8%	Moderate	S-isomer of omeprazole; slightly better profile
Lansoprazole (Prevacid)	15-30 mg daily	3.4%	Moderate to high	Similar to omeprazole
Pantoprazole (Protonix)	40 mg daily	1.8%	Low to moderate	Lowest constipation rate; preferred switch option
Rabeprazole (Aciphex)	20 mg daily	2.1%	Low to moderate	Second-lowest rate
Dexlansoprazole (Dexilant)	60 mg daily	2.5%	Moderate	Dual delayed-release formulation

The ranking is based on pooled data from FDA labels and post-marketing surveillance (Savarino et al., Digestive Diseases 2016). Head-to-head trials are limited, so the differences may reflect population variation as much as true drug effect.

If constipation is the limiting side effect, pantoprazole is the evidence-based switch. It provides equivalent acid suppression to omeprazole 20 mg at a 40 mg dose, with roughly half the constipation incidence.

Rabeprazole is the second choice. Esomeprazole is chemically too similar to omeprazole to expect much benefit from switching.

FormBlends clinical pattern: the 8-week inflection point

Across the patient population using compounded GLP-1 medications (semaglutide and tirzepatide) who are also on PPIs for GERD management, we see a consistent pattern: constipation complaints peak between weeks 8 and 12 of PPI therapy, not earlier.

The pattern holds whether the PPI was started before or after the GLP-1 medication. Patients on stable-dose omeprazole for months who then start semaglutide don't see additive constipation risk in the first 4 weeks. The constipation that emerges later is attributable to the PPI's magnesium-depletion pathway, not the GLP-1's gastric-slowing mechanism.

The clinical implication: if you're starting both a GLP-1 medication and a PPI simultaneously (common when GLP-1 therapy causes new-onset reflux), expect two waves of GI side effects. Nausea and early satiety in weeks 1 to 4 (GLP-1-mediated), then constipation in weeks 8 to 12 (PPI-mediated). The fix protocols are different for each.

The 8-week inflection point also guides discontinuation decisions. If a patient has been on omeprazole for 6 weeks and wants to stop due to constipation concerns, we typically recommend completing the 8-week course with magnesium supplementation rather than stopping early, because most GERD healing protocols require 8 weeks. Stopping at 6 weeks means higher recurrence risk.

This is pattern recognition from clinical practice, not a published statistic. The takeaway is that PPI-induced constipation has a predictable timeline that should inform both patient expectations and intervention timing.

FAQ

Can omeprazole cause constipation? Yes. Omeprazole causes constipation in approximately 2 to 4% of users through magnesium depletion, gut microbiome disruption, and reduced acid-mediated motility signaling. The effect typically appears 4 to 12 weeks after starting therapy, not immediately.

How common is constipation with omeprazole? Constipation occurs in 2.1% to 3.8% of omeprazole users in clinical trials, compared to 1.2% to 1.9% in placebo groups. The incidence is higher with 40 mg daily (3.4%) than 20 mg daily (2.1%) and increases with longer treatment duration.

Why does omeprazole cause constipation? Omeprazole suppresses gastric acid, which impairs magnesium absorption in the small intestine. Low magnesium reduces smooth muscle function in the colon, slowing transit time. The medication also disrupts the gut microbiome, reducing butyrate-producing bacteria that normally stimulate colonic motility.

How long does omeprazole constipation last? If untreated, constipation persists as long as you take omeprazole. With magnesium supplementation (200-400 mg daily), most patients see improvement within 7 to 14 days. If you stop omeprazole, constipation typically resolves in 2 to 4 weeks as magnesium levels normalize.

What helps constipation from omeprazole? Start with magnesium citrate or magnesium glycinate, 200 to 400 mg daily. If symptoms persist after 14 days, add psyllium fiber (5-10 grams daily) and a probiotic containing Bifidobacterium lactis or Lactobacillus reuteri. About 70% of patients improve with magnesium alone.

Should I stop taking omeprazole if I get constipated? Not without talking to your provider. Most omeprazole-induced constipation is manageable with magnesium supplementation and doesn't require stopping the medication. If constipation is severe and doesn't respond to the fix protocol, ask about switching to pantoprazole or stepping down to an H2 blocker.

Does omeprazole cause constipation or diarrhea? Omeprazole causes constipation more often than diarrhea (3.2% vs 2.7% in pooled trials). Diarrhea from omeprazole is usually related to bacterial overgrowth or C. difficile infection, not a direct drug effect. Constipation is mediated by magnesium depletion.

Which is better for constipation, omeprazole or pantoprazole? Pantoprazole has a lower constipation incidence (1.8%) than omeprazole (3.2%) in comparative studies. If constipation is limiting your ability to stay on a PPI, pantoprazole 40 mg is the evidence-based switch option with equivalent acid suppression.

Can I take magnesium with omeprazole? Yes. Magnesium supplementation is safe and recommended for patients on long-term omeprazole therapy. Take magnesium citrate or glycinate (200-400 mg daily) at least 2 hours apart from omeprazole to avoid interaction. Avoid magnesium oxide, which is poorly absorbed.

Does omeprazole cause constipation in everyone? No. About 96 to 98% of omeprazole users do not develop constipation. The risk is higher in patients with low baseline dietary magnesium intake, pre-existing slow-transit constipation, or concurrent use of other constipating medications (opioids, anticholinergics, calcium supplements).

How much magnesium should I take if omeprazole causes constipation? Start with 200 mg elemental magnesium once daily (magnesium citrate or glycinate). If no improvement after 7 days, increase to 200 mg twice daily. Maximum recommended dose is 400 mg daily. Most patients see improvement within 14 days at this dose.

Is constipation a sign of too much omeprazole? Constipation incidence increases modestly with higher doses (40 mg daily causes 1.6 times more constipation than 20 mg daily). If you're on 40 mg and experiencing constipation, ask your provider whether stepping down to 20 mg is feasible after initial healing is confirmed.

Can omeprazole cause severe constipation? Severe constipation (bowel movements less than once per week, impaction) occurs in fewer than 0.5% of omeprazole users. If you develop severe constipation, contact your provider. This may indicate severe magnesium depletion or an unrelated motility disorder that requires evaluation.

What foods should I eat to prevent omeprazole constipation? High-magnesium foods include dark leafy greens (spinach, Swiss chard), pumpkin seeds, black beans, almonds, and avocados. However, dietary changes alone rarely prevent PPI-induced constipation because magnesium absorption is impaired. Supplementation is more effective than diet modification.

Does stopping omeprazole fix constipation immediately? No. Constipation typically resolves 2 to 4 weeks after stopping omeprazole, as magnesium stores replenish from dietary intake. If you need faster relief, start magnesium supplementation even after stopping the PPI. Levels normalize more quickly with supplementation (7-14 days).

Sources

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3. Jackson MA et al. Proton pump inhibitors alter the composition of the gut microbiota. Gut. 2016.
4. Yeomans ND et al. A comparison of omeprazole with ranitidine for ulcers associated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 1998.
5. Savarino V et al. Adverse effects of proton pump inhibitors. Digestive Diseases. 2016.
6. Laine L et al. Esomeprazole for the treatment of erosive esophagitis. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2000.
7. Suares NC, Ford AC. Prevalence of, and risk factors for, chronic idiopathic constipation in the community: systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Gastroenterology. 2011.
8. Danziger J et al. Proton-pump inhibitor use is associated with low serum magnesium concentrations. Kidney International. 2013.
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10. Kirchheiner J et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of proton pump inhibitors. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 2009.
11. American Gastroenterological Association. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. 2017.
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14. Davies MJ et al. Gastric emptying in tirzepatide-treated patients. Diabetes Care. 2023.

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