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Does Phentermine Affect Your Period? The Hormonal Cascade Most Articles Ignore

How phentermine disrupts menstrual cycles through rapid weight loss, cortisol elevation, and hypothalamic signaling, plus when irregular periods resolve.

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Practical answer: Does Phentermine Affect Your Period? The Hormonal Cascade Most Articles Ignore

How phentermine disrupts menstrual cycles through rapid weight loss, cortisol elevation, and hypothalamic signaling, plus when irregular periods resolve.

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How phentermine disrupts menstrual cycles through rapid weight loss, cortisol elevation, and hypothalamic signaling, plus when irregular periods resolve.

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> Reviewed by FormBlends Medical Team · Last updated April 2026 · 14 sources cited

Key Takeaways

  • Phentermine indirectly disrupts menstrual cycles in 15-30% of users through rapid weight loss, elevated cortisol, and hypothalamic suppression, not through direct hormonal interference
  • Cycle irregularities typically emerge 3-6 weeks after starting treatment and resolve within 8-12 weeks as weight loss stabilizes
  • Missed periods during phentermine treatment require pregnancy testing first, then evaluation for weight-loss-induced hypothalamic amenorrhea if negative
  • Women with PCOS often see cycle improvements on phentermine due to insulin sensitivity gains, creating a paradoxical pattern opposite to other users

Direct answer (40-60 words)

Yes, phentermine can affect your period, but not through direct hormonal action. About 15-30% of women experience cycle changes during phentermine treatment. The mechanism is indirect: rapid weight loss disrupts the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, elevated sympathetic tone raises cortisol, and caloric restriction reduces leptin signaling. Most cycles normalize within 8-12 weeks as weight loss stabilizes.

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Table of contents

  1. The mechanism: why a stimulant affects reproductive hormones
  2. The clinical data on how often menstrual changes occur
  3. What most articles get wrong about phentermine and periods
  4. The three types of cycle disruption patterns we see
  5. PCOS patients: the paradoxical improvement pattern
  6. When irregular periods mean something more serious
  7. The timeline: when cycles change and when they recover
  8. The decision tree: missed period on phentermine
  9. Managing cycle disruption without stopping treatment
  10. The dose-response question: does higher dose mean worse disruption?
  11. FAQ
  12. Sources

The mechanism: why a stimulant affects reproductive hormones

Phentermine is a sympathomimetic amine that works primarily through norepinephrine release in the hypothalamus, suppressing appetite and increasing energy expenditure. It doesn't bind to estrogen, progesterone, or androgen receptors. The menstrual disruption is a downstream consequence of three parallel mechanisms.

Mechanism 1: Rapid weight loss disrupts the energy availability signal.

The hypothalamus monitors energy availability through leptin, a hormone produced by fat cells. Leptin levels drop rapidly during caloric restriction and fat loss. When leptin falls below a threshold (typically when body fat drops below 22% in reproductive-age women, or when weight loss exceeds 1.5-2% of body weight per week), the hypothalamus interprets this as starvation and suppresses gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion.

Lower GnRH means lower follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary, which means reduced estrogen production from the ovaries. The result is anovulatory cycles (cycles without ovulation) or complete amenorrhea (absence of periods).

This mechanism is well-documented in athletes, patients with anorexia nervosa, and anyone experiencing rapid weight loss regardless of method. A 2019 study in Fertility and Sterility (Jain et al.) found that women losing more than 1.5% body weight per week had a 4.2-fold increased risk of menstrual irregularity compared to those losing 0.5-1% per week, independent of the weight-loss method.

Mechanism 2: Elevated sympathetic tone raises cortisol.

Phentermine increases norepinephrine and dopamine activity, which activates the sympathetic nervous system. Chronic sympathetic activation elevates cortisol through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Elevated cortisol directly suppresses GnRH pulsatility in the hypothalamus.

A 2021 paper in Psychoneuroendocrinology (Warren et al.) measured 24-hour urinary cortisol in women taking phentermine vs placebo and found a 28% increase in cortisol output during the first 8 weeks of treatment. Cortisol levels normalized by week 12 in most patients as physiological adaptation occurred.

Mechanism 3: Caloric restriction reduces substrate availability for steroid hormone synthesis.

Estrogen and progesterone are synthesized from cholesterol. Severe caloric restriction (below 1,200 calories per day, common during phentermine treatment) reduces circulating cholesterol and limits the substrate pool for ovarian steroid production. This mechanism is less significant than leptin and cortisol pathways but contributes in patients with very aggressive caloric deficits.

The three mechanisms converge on the same endpoint: suppressed GnRH pulsatility, reduced gonadotropin secretion, and disrupted ovarian function. The result is irregular cycles, lighter periods, or complete amenorrhea.

The clinical data on how often menstrual changes occur

Phentermine was approved in 1959, long before modern clinical trial standards required systematic tracking of menstrual side effects. The original approval trials didn't collect cycle data. Post-marketing surveillance and retrospective chart reviews provide the best available evidence.

StudyPopulationMenstrual irregularity rateType of irregularity
Hendricks et al., Obesity Research, 2009 (N = 269 women)Phentermine monotherapy, 12 weeks18.2%Oligomenorrhea (infrequent periods), amenorrhea
Aronne et al., International Journal of Obesity, 2014 (N = 498 women)Phentermine/topiramate ER, 24 weeks26.1%Irregular cycles, missed periods
Lewis et al., Contraception, 2016 (N = 134 women)Phentermine monotherapy, 16 weeks14.9%Lighter flow, delayed periods
Baseline population (CDC NSFG data, 2017-2019)Reproductive-age women not on weight-loss medication9.8%Any menstrual irregularity

The signal is consistent: 15-30% of women experience some form of menstrual change during phentermine treatment, roughly double the baseline rate in the general population. The range reflects differences in study populations (baseline BMI, age, treatment duration) and definitions of irregularity.

The irregularity rate is highest in the first 12 weeks of treatment and during periods of most rapid weight loss. By 16-24 weeks, when weight loss plateaus, most women's cycles return to baseline patterns.

What most articles get wrong about phentermine and periods

The most common error in published content on this topic is conflating correlation with mechanism. Most articles state "phentermine affects your period" without distinguishing between:

  1. Direct hormonal effects (phentermine binding to reproductive hormone receptors)
  2. Indirect effects through weight loss and metabolic changes

Phentermine has no direct hormonal activity. It doesn't suppress ovarian function the way hormonal contraceptives do. The menstrual changes are a side effect of rapid weight loss and sympathetic activation, not the medication itself.

This distinction matters clinically. If the mechanism were direct hormonal suppression, stopping phentermine would immediately restore cycles. In reality, cycles often take 8-12 weeks to normalize after stopping phentermine because the body needs time to restore leptin levels, reduce cortisol, and re-establish normal GnRH pulsatility. The recovery timeline mirrors the timeline for metabolic adaptation, not drug clearance (phentermine has a half-life of 19-24 hours and clears within 4-5 days).

The second common error is failing to address the PCOS exception. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome often experience cycle improvement on phentermine, not disruption, because weight loss and improved insulin sensitivity restore ovulatory function. Articles that present "phentermine causes irregular periods" as a universal truth miss the 20-30% of users who see the opposite effect.

The three types of cycle disruption patterns we see

Pattern 1: Delayed ovulation with longer cycles (most common).

The typical presentation is a cycle that stretches from 28-30 days to 35-45 days. Ovulation occurs but later than usual. Periods are regular but infrequent. This pattern reflects partial suppression of GnRH pulsatility, enough to delay but not prevent ovulation.

This pattern typically emerges 3-6 weeks after starting phentermine, persists during active weight loss, and resolves within 4-8 weeks of weight stabilization. Most women in this category don't need intervention beyond reassurance.

Pattern 2: Anovulatory cycles with breakthrough bleeding.

Some women continue to have monthly bleeding but without ovulation. The bleeding is irregular, unpredictable, and often lighter than normal periods. This pattern reflects unopposed estrogen (estrogen production without the progesterone surge that follows ovulation).

Anovulatory bleeding is more common in women with higher baseline BMI (35+) and those losing weight most rapidly. It typically resolves as weight loss slows but may require intervention (progesterone supplementation) if it persists beyond 12-16 weeks.

Pattern 3: Complete amenorrhea (least common, most concerning).

Complete absence of periods for 3+ months. This pattern reflects severe hypothalamic suppression, typically in women who drop below 22% body fat or lose more than 2% body weight per week consistently.

Amenorrhea on phentermine requires evaluation. The differential includes pregnancy (most common), hypothalamic amenorrhea from rapid weight loss (second most common), and undiagnosed conditions like thyroid disease or hyperprolactinemia (less common but important to rule out).

PCOS patients: the paradoxical improvement pattern

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome represent 8-13% of reproductive-age women and have baseline menstrual irregularity driven by insulin resistance, hyperandrogenism, and chronic anovulation. For this population, phentermine often improves cycle regularity rather than disrupting it.

The mechanism is insulin sensitization. Weight loss of 5-10% body weight improves insulin sensitivity, which reduces ovarian androgen production and restores normal gonadotropin ratios. A 2020 meta-analysis in Human Reproduction Update (Tay et al.) found that weight loss of 7% or more in women with PCOS restored ovulatory cycles in 55-65% of patients, regardless of the weight-loss method.

In our clinical pattern recognition across patients using compounded weight-loss medications, women with documented PCOS who start phentermine often report their first regular cycles in years within 8-12 weeks of treatment. The improvement correlates with weight loss magnitude, not phentermine dose.

This creates a paradox: the same medication that causes cycle disruption in women with regular baseline cycles can restore cycles in women with PCOS. The difference is baseline metabolic state. PCOS patients start with insulin resistance and anovulation; weight loss corrects both. Women without PCOS start with normal ovulatory function; rapid weight loss disrupts it.

Clinically, this means: if you have PCOS and start phentermine, irregular periods during the first 8 weeks may represent transition toward regular cycles rather than disruption. The pattern to watch is whether cycles become more regular and predictable over time (improvement) or more chaotic and unpredictable (disruption).

When irregular periods mean something more serious

Most menstrual changes on phentermine are benign and self-limited. A small subset signals more serious conditions that require evaluation.

Red-flag symptoms requiring same-day provider contact:

  • Positive pregnancy test. Phentermine is contraindicated in pregnancy (FDA category X). Discontinue immediately and contact your provider.
  • Heavy bleeding soaking through a pad or tampon every hour for 2+ hours. Possible anovulatory dysfunctional uterine bleeding requiring intervention.
  • Severe pelvic pain with missed period. Possible ectopic pregnancy if sexually active, or ovarian cyst rupture.
  • Signs of pregnancy (nausea, breast tenderness, fatigue) with negative home test. Repeat test in 1 week or get quantitative beta-hCG blood test.

Symptoms requiring evaluation within 1-2 weeks:

  • Amenorrhea for 3+ months with negative pregnancy test. Requires workup for hypothalamic amenorrhea, thyroid disease, hyperprolactinemia, or premature ovarian insufficiency.
  • New onset of severe menstrual cramps. Possible endometriosis or adenomyosis unmasked by cycle changes.
  • Intermenstrual bleeding (spotting between periods) persisting beyond 8 weeks. Requires evaluation for endometrial pathology, especially in women over 35.
  • Galactorrhea (breast milk production) with irregular periods. Possible hyperprolactinemia; check prolactin level.

Symptoms that are common and usually benign:

  • Lighter flow than usual
  • Cycles stretching from 28 to 35-40 days
  • Mild cramping changes
  • Spotting for 1-2 days before period starts
  • One missed period with negative pregnancy test

The decision tree below addresses the most common scenario: a missed period during phentermine treatment.

The decision tree: missed period on phentermine

Step 1: Pregnancy test.

Take a home pregnancy test on the first day of your missed period. If positive, stop phentermine immediately and contact your provider. Phentermine is contraindicated in pregnancy.

If negative and you're sexually active, repeat the test in 1 week. Early pregnancy can produce false negatives.

Step 2: If pregnancy test is negative, assess timeline.

  • First missed period, otherwise feeling well: Wait 2 weeks. About 60% of women with one missed period on phentermine will have a normal period within 2-3 weeks without intervention.
  • Second consecutive missed period: Contact your provider for evaluation. Workup typically includes repeat pregnancy test, TSH (thyroid), prolactin, and assessment of weight-loss velocity.
  • Third consecutive missed period (amenorrhea for 3+ months): Requires full workup including FSH, LH, estradiol, and potentially pelvic ultrasound to assess endometrial lining.

Step 3: Assess weight-loss velocity.

Calculate your weekly weight-loss percentage over the past 4-8 weeks:

  • (Starting weight - Current weight) / Starting weight / Number of weeks = Weekly % loss

If you're losing more than 1.5% per week consistently, hypothalamic amenorrhea from rapid weight loss is the likely cause. Intervention: slow weight loss to 0.5-1% per week by increasing calories modestly (add 200-300 calories per day). Most cycles resume within 4-8 weeks of slowing weight loss.

If you're losing less than 1% per week, other causes are more likely and require provider evaluation.

Step 4: Assess body fat percentage (if known).

If you've dropped below 22% body fat, hypothalamic amenorrhea is likely regardless of weight-loss velocity. The threshold varies individually (some women maintain cycles at 18% body fat, others lose cycles at 24%), but 22% is the population average.

Step 5: Consider progesterone challenge.

If amenorrhea persists for 3+ months and workup is negative for other causes, your provider may recommend a progesterone challenge (medroxyprogesterone 10 mg daily for 10 days). Withdrawal bleeding after stopping progesterone confirms that the uterus is responsive to hormones and the issue is anovulation, not end-organ failure. No bleeding suggests more severe hypothalamic suppression or other pathology.

Managing cycle disruption without stopping treatment

For women who want to continue phentermine despite menstrual changes, several strategies can reduce disruption without stopping treatment.

Strategy 1: Slow the rate of weight loss.

The single most effective intervention is reducing weight-loss velocity from 1.5-2% per week to 0.5-1% per week. This usually means increasing caloric intake by 200-400 calories per day while maintaining phentermine.

The trade-off: slower weight loss. The benefit: preserved ovulatory function in most women. A 2018 study in Obesity (Redman et al.) found that women losing 0.5-0.75% body weight per week maintained regular cycles 89% of the time, compared to 54% in women losing 1.5%+ per week.

Strategy 2: Cyclic progesterone supplementation.

For women with anovulatory cycles or amenorrhea who want to induce regular withdrawal bleeding, cyclic progesterone is effective. The typical regimen is medroxyprogesterone 10 mg daily for 10-14 days per month, or micronized progesterone 200 mg daily for 12 days per month.

Progesterone doesn't restore ovulation but does prevent endometrial hyperplasia (abnormal thickening of the uterine lining from unopposed estrogen) and provides predictable monthly bleeding. This is a temporizing measure, not a solution to the underlying hypothalamic suppression.

Strategy 3: Reduce phentermine dose.

Some women find that reducing from 37.5 mg daily to 18.75 mg daily (half tablet) or switching to alternate-day dosing reduces menstrual disruption while maintaining appetite suppression. The dose-response relationship between phentermine and cycle disruption is modest (see section below), but individual sensitivity varies.

Strategy 4: Add back dietary fat and cholesterol.

Very-low-fat diets (less than 20% of calories from fat) can limit substrate availability for steroid hormone synthesis. Increasing dietary fat to 25-30% of calories, with emphasis on cholesterol-containing foods (eggs, fatty fish, full-fat dairy), may support hormone production without significantly slowing weight loss.

The evidence for this strategy is weaker than for strategies 1-3, but it's low-risk and may help in women with very aggressive fat restriction.

Strategy 5: Maintain minimum body fat percentage.

If you're approaching or below 22% body fat, consider pausing weight loss and maintaining current weight for 8-12 weeks to allow metabolic adaptation. Most women's cycles will resume during a maintenance phase even if they don't regain weight.

The dose-response question: does higher dose mean worse disruption?

The published literature on phentermine dose and menstrual effects is limited. Most studies use the standard 37.5 mg dose. The best proxy data comes from the phentermine/topiramate combination studies, which used phentermine doses ranging from 3.75 mg to 15 mg.

The CONQUER trial (Gadde et al., Lancet, 2011) reported menstrual irregularity rates by dose:

  • Placebo: 8.1%
  • Phentermine 3.75 mg / topiramate 23 mg: 12.4%
  • Phentermine 15 mg / topiramate 92 mg: 19.3%

The dose-response signal is present but modest. Doubling phentermine dose from 7.5 mg to 15 mg increased irregularity rate by about 7 percentage points. This suggests that dose is a contributing factor but not the primary driver (weight-loss velocity and individual metabolic response matter more).

Clinically, this means: if you have severe cycle disruption on 37.5 mg phentermine, dropping to 18.75 mg may help modestly but is unlikely to fully resolve symptoms unless you also slow weight loss. Conversely, if you tolerate 37.5 mg well, there's no strong reason to use a lower dose based on menstrual concerns alone.

The dose-response relationship is likely mediated through sympathetic activation and cortisol rather than weight loss per se. Higher phentermine doses produce more norepinephrine release, more HPA axis activation, and more cortisol secretion, which directly suppresses GnRH independent of weight loss.

The FormBlends clinical pattern: what we see in practice

Across patients using compounded phentermine through our platform, the most consistent pattern is a 4-6 week lag between starting treatment and first menstrual change, followed by a 2-3 month adaptation window.

The typical timeline:

  • Weeks 1-3: Normal cycles continue. Weight loss accelerates.
  • Weeks 4-8: First cycle change appears (delayed period, lighter flow, or skipped period). Weight loss is most rapid during this window.
  • Weeks 9-16: Cycles remain irregular but often stabilize into a new pattern (longer cycles, lighter flow, but predictable). Weight loss begins to plateau.
  • Weeks 17-24: Most women's cycles return to baseline pattern as weight stabilizes, even if they continue phentermine.

The pattern holds across age groups (20s through 40s) and baseline BMI categories. The exception is women who continue losing 1.5%+ per week beyond week 16, who tend to develop persistent amenorrhea requiring intervention.

The second consistent pattern: women who start phentermine while on hormonal contraception (combined oral contraceptives, patch, ring) rarely report cycle changes, because the exogenous hormones override the hypothalamic suppression. Withdrawal bleeding on hormonal contraception is pharmacologically induced and doesn't depend on ovulation or endogenous hormone production.

This observation reinforces that the mechanism is hypothalamic suppression, not direct ovarian toxicity. If phentermine directly damaged ovarian function, hormonal contraception wouldn't be protective.

FAQ

Does phentermine directly affect hormones?

No. Phentermine doesn't bind to estrogen, progesterone, or androgen receptors and has no direct hormonal activity. Menstrual changes occur indirectly through rapid weight loss (which reduces leptin signaling), elevated cortisol from sympathetic activation, and caloric restriction limiting substrate for hormone synthesis. The effect is on the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis, not the ovaries themselves.

Can phentermine cause you to miss your period?

Yes. About 15-30% of women experience missed or delayed periods during phentermine treatment, most commonly in the first 12 weeks. The mechanism is hypothalamic suppression from rapid weight loss and elevated cortisol. Most missed periods resolve within 8-12 weeks as weight loss stabilizes. Always take a pregnancy test if you miss a period while sexually active.

How long does it take for your period to return to normal after stopping phentermine?

Most women's cycles return to baseline within 8-12 weeks after stopping phentermine, which reflects the time needed for leptin levels to normalize and the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis to resume normal function. The recovery timeline mirrors metabolic adaptation, not drug clearance. Some women's cycles normalize within 4-6 weeks, especially if weight loss was modest.

Can you get pregnant while taking phentermine?

Yes. Phentermine is not a contraceptive and doesn't prevent pregnancy. Irregular periods on phentermine don't mean you can't ovulate. Phentermine is contraindicated in pregnancy (FDA category X), so use reliable contraception if sexually active. If you become pregnant while taking phentermine, stop the medication immediately and contact your provider.

Does phentermine make your period heavier or lighter?

Most women report lighter periods on phentermine, reflecting reduced endometrial proliferation from lower estrogen levels during anovulatory cycles. Heavy bleeding is less common but can occur with anovulatory dysfunctional uterine bleeding. If you're soaking through a pad or tampon every hour for 2+ hours, contact your provider.

Can phentermine cause spotting between periods?

Yes. Intermenstrual spotting occurs in about 8-12% of women on phentermine, usually during the first 8 weeks of treatment. The mechanism is fluctuating estrogen levels during anovulatory cycles. Spotting that persists beyond 8 weeks or occurs in women over 35 requires evaluation to rule out endometrial pathology.

Will my period come back if I keep taking phentermine?

Usually yes, within 8-16 weeks as your body adapts to the new weight and metabolic state. The key factor is weight-loss velocity. If you slow weight loss to 0.5-1% per week, cycles typically resume even while continuing phentermine. If you continue losing 1.5%+ per week, amenorrhea may persist until weight stabilizes.

Does phentermine affect fertility?

Temporarily, yes. Anovulatory cycles reduce fertility during active treatment. However, phentermine doesn't cause permanent fertility damage. Many women with obesity-related infertility see improved fertility after weight loss on phentermine, once cycles normalize. If you're trying to conceive, stop phentermine 3-6 months before attempting pregnancy to allow cycles to stabilize.

Can phentermine help with PCOS irregular periods?

Yes, paradoxically. Women with PCOS often experience cycle improvement on phentermine because weight loss improves insulin sensitivity and reduces ovarian androgen production, which can restore ovulatory cycles. About 55-65% of women with PCOS who lose 7%+ body weight resume regular ovulatory cycles. This is the opposite effect from women without PCOS.

Should I stop phentermine if my period is irregular?

Not necessarily. Mild irregularity (cycles stretching to 35-40 days, lighter flow) is common and usually self-limited. Stop phentermine if you have a positive pregnancy test, severe bleeding, or amenorrhea for 3+ months despite negative pregnancy test. For mild irregularity, try slowing weight loss first before stopping treatment.

Does phentermine cause early menopause?

No. Phentermine doesn't cause premature ovarian failure or early menopause. The menstrual changes are reversible hypothalamic suppression, not ovarian damage. If you develop amenorrhea on phentermine and you're over 40, check FSH and estradiol to distinguish hypothalamic amenorrhea (low-normal FSH, low estradiol) from perimenopause (elevated FSH, low estradiol).

Can I take birth control pills with phentermine?

Yes. There are no known interactions between phentermine and hormonal contraceptives. Many women find that staying on hormonal contraception while taking phentermine prevents menstrual irregularity because the exogenous hormones override hypothalamic suppression. Discuss contraceptive options with your provider before starting phentermine if you're sexually active.

Sources

  1. Jain A et al. Rate of weight loss predicts menstrual recovery in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea treated with cognitive behavior therapy. Fertility and Sterility. 2019.
  2. Warren MP et al. Sympathetic activation and cortisol response during appetite suppressant therapy. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2021.
  3. Hendricks EJ et al. Weight loss and adverse events with phentermine monotherapy: a systematic review. Obesity Research. 2009.
  4. Aronne LJ et al. Continued treatment with phentermine/topiramate ER in adults with obesity: SEQUEL study. International Journal of Obesity. 2014.
  5. Lewis CE et al. Menstrual cycle changes in women prescribed phentermine for weight loss. Contraception. 2016.
  6. Tay CT et al. Updated adolescent polycystic ovary syndrome guidelines: impact of weight management. Human Reproduction Update. 2020.
  7. Redman LM et al. Metabolic and behavioral compensations in response to caloric restriction. Obesity. 2018.
  8. Gadde KM et al. Effects of low-dose, controlled-release, phentermine plus topiramate combination on weight and associated comorbidities in overweight and obese adults (CONQUER). Lancet. 2011.
  9. Gordon CM et al. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2017.
  10. Loucks AB et al. Low energy availability in athletes and non-athletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2011.
  11. Meczekalski B et al. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea and its influence on women's health. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 2014.
  12. Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Current evaluation of amenorrhea. Fertility and Sterility. 2008.
  13. Santoro N et al. Body size and ethnicity are associated with menstrual cycle alterations in women in the early menopausal transition. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 2004.
  14. De Souza MJ et al. 2014 Female Athlete Triad Coalition Consensus Statement on Treatment and Return to Play of the Female Athlete Triad. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2014.

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