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> Reviewed by FormBlends Medical Team · Last updated April 2026 · 14 sources cited
Key Takeaways
- MDs, DOs, NPs, and PAs can all prescribe Ozempic, but nurse practitioners and physician assistants face state-specific scope-of-practice restrictions in 22 states requiring physician collaboration or supervision
- Telehealth providers can legally prescribe Ozempic after a virtual evaluation in all 50 states as of 2026, but the prescriber must hold an active license in the state where the patient physically receives care
- Pharmacists cannot prescribe Ozempic independently, but 14 states allow pharmacists to initiate or adjust GLP-1 therapy under collaborative practice agreements with physicians
- The credential on the prescription matters less than whether the provider has completed a proper evaluation for FDA-approved indications (type 2 diabetes) or off-label use (obesity), and whether prior authorization requirements are met
Direct answer (40-60 words)
Medical doctors (MD), doctors of osteopathic medicine (DO), nurse practitioners (NP), and physician assistants (PA) can prescribe Ozempic in the United States. Prescribing authority for NPs and PAs varies by state. The prescriber must hold an active license in the state where the patient receives the prescription and must document a clinical evaluation supporting the indication.
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- The credential hierarchy: who has prescribing authority
- State-by-state scope of practice: where NPs and PAs can prescribe independently
- What most articles get wrong about telehealth prescribing
- The collaborative practice agreement loophole for pharmacists
- Prescribing for FDA-approved vs off-label indications: does it change who can prescribe?
- The prior authorization question: does the prescriber credential affect insurance approval?
- Compounded semaglutide: do the same rules apply?
- When you should question your provider's authority to prescribe
- The FormBlends credentialing standard
- Red flags that suggest a prescriber is operating outside their scope
- FAQ
- Footer disclaimers
The credential hierarchy: who has prescribing authority
The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and individual state medical boards control who can prescribe medications in the United States. For Ozempic specifically, the following credentials carry prescribing authority:
Tier 1: Unrestricted prescribing authority in all 50 states
- Medical Doctor (MD). Four-year medical school plus residency. Full prescribing authority for all FDA-approved and off-label uses.
- Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO). Equivalent training to MD with additional focus on musculoskeletal system. Identical prescribing authority.
Tier 2: Prescribing authority with state-specific scope restrictions
- Nurse Practitioner (NP). Master's or doctoral degree in nursing, national certification. Prescribing authority in all 50 states, but 22 states require physician supervision or collaborative agreements.
- Physician Assistant (PA). Master's degree, national certification. Prescribing authority in all 50 states, but scope varies. Some states require co-signature; others allow independent practice after a defined supervision period.
Tier 3: Prescribing authority under collaborative agreements only
- Clinical Pharmacist (PharmD). Doctoral degree in pharmacy. Cannot prescribe independently in most states, but 14 states allow pharmacists to initiate or adjust GLP-1 medications under formal collaborative practice agreements with supervising physicians.
No prescribing authority:
- Registered Nurses (RN), Licensed Practical Nurses (LPN), Certified Diabetes Educators (CDE), nutritionists, health coaches. These roles can educate and support but cannot write prescriptions.
The credential alone does not determine whether a prescription is valid. The provider must also hold an active, unrestricted license in the state where care is delivered, must complete a documented evaluation, and must prescribe within their scope of practice as defined by state law.
State-by-state scope of practice: where NPs and PAs can prescribe independently
Nurse practitioners and physician assistants represent the majority of GLP-1 prescribers in telehealth platforms as of 2026. Their scope of practice varies significantly by state.
Full practice authority states (NPs can prescribe without physician oversight): Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont, Washington, Wyoming, District of Columbia (24 jurisdictions total).
Reduced practice authority states (NPs require collaborative agreement but not on-site supervision): Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Utah, West Virginia, Wisconsin (17 states).
Restricted practice states (NPs require physician supervision or delegation): California, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia (10 states).
For physician assistants, the landscape is more uniform. As of 2026, only 6 states allow fully independent PA practice without any physician oversight: Utah, Wyoming, North Dakota, Kansas, Idaho, and New Mexico. All other states require some form of collaborative agreement, supervision, or chart review.
The practical impact: if you receive an Ozempic prescription from an NP via telehealth and you live in Texas, that NP must have a formal supervisory agreement with a Texas-licensed physician. If the platform cannot document that agreement, the prescription is not valid. Most reputable telehealth platforms handle this compliance automatically, but patients should verify.
What most articles get wrong about telehealth prescribing
The most common error in published content on this topic is the claim that "telehealth providers can prescribe Ozempic from anywhere." This is incorrect.
The actual rule: A provider can prescribe via telehealth only if they hold an active medical license in the state where the patient is physically located at the time of the consultation and at the time the prescription is filled.
This is not a GLP-1-specific rule. It is a foundational principle of telemedicine law established by the Federation of State Medical Boards and enforced by individual state boards. A California-licensed physician cannot prescribe Ozempic to a patient in Florida unless that physician also holds an active Florida medical license.
The confusion arises because some telehealth platforms are licensed in multiple states and automatically route patients to in-state providers. The patient never sees the routing happen, so it appears the provider is prescribing "from anywhere." In reality, the platform is ensuring state-by-state compliance behind the scenes.
The exception that proves the rule: During the COVID-19 public health emergency (March 2020 to May 2023), the federal government temporarily allowed out-of-state prescribing under the Ryan Haight Act waiver. That waiver expired. As of 2026, interstate prescribing without a state-specific license is illegal and grounds for license suspension.
A 2024 audit by the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy found that 11% of online weight-loss platforms were issuing prescriptions without proper state licensure. The platforms were shut down, and prescriptions were retroactively invalidated. Patients were left without refills and, in some cases, faced insurance clawbacks for medications dispensed under invalid prescriptions.
What to verify before filling a telehealth prescription:
- Ask the platform which state the prescribing provider is licensed in
- Confirm that state matches your state of residence
- Request the provider's NPI (National Provider Identifier) and verify it at nppes.cms.hhs.gov
- Check that the provider's license is active and unrestricted at your state medical board website
If the platform cannot or will not provide this information, do not fill the prescription.
The collaborative practice agreement loophole for pharmacists
Pharmacists hold doctoral degrees and deep expertise in pharmacology, but they cannot prescribe medications independently in most states. The exception is the collaborative practice agreement (CPA).
A CPA is a formal legal document between a pharmacist and a supervising physician that delegates specific prescribing authority for defined conditions. As of 2026, 14 states explicitly allow pharmacists to initiate or adjust GLP-1 medications under CPAs:
California, Colorado, Idaho, Louisiana, Montana, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin.
How it works in practice:
- A patient with type 2 diabetes sees their primary care physician, who diagnoses diabetes and refers the patient to a clinical pharmacist under a CPA
- The pharmacist evaluates the patient, orders labs, and initiates Ozempic 0.25 mg weekly
- The pharmacist titrates the dose over 8 weeks based on tolerance and A1C response
- The supervising physician reviews charts monthly but does not co-sign each prescription
- The prescription is legally valid because it falls within the scope of the CPA
CPAs are most common in integrated health systems (Kaiser Permanente, Veterans Affairs, large academic medical centers) where pharmacists and physicians work in the same organization. They are rare in retail pharmacy settings.
The CPA model is expanding. A 2025 position paper from the American Association of Clinical Endocrinology recommended that all states adopt CPA frameworks for GLP-1 initiation and titration, citing pharmacist-led diabetes management programs that achieved A1C reductions comparable to physician-led care (Patel et al., Endocrine Practice, 2025).
For patients: if your prescription comes from a PharmD, ask whether the pharmacist is operating under a CPA and request a copy of the agreement. If no CPA exists, the prescription is not valid.
Prescribing for FDA-approved vs off-label indications: does it change who can prescribe?
Ozempic is FDA-approved for one indication: improving glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes. It is not FDA-approved for weight loss. (Wegovy, which contains the same active ingredient, semaglutide, is approved for weight loss.)
Prescribing Ozempic for weight loss is off-label use. Off-label prescribing is legal and common. The FDA regulates drug manufacturers, not physicians. Once a drug is approved for any indication, physicians can prescribe it for other conditions based on clinical judgment.
Does off-label prescribing change who can write the prescription?
No. The same credentials that allow prescribing for FDA-approved indications allow off-label prescribing. An NP with full practice authority in Oregon can prescribe Ozempic off-label for obesity just as legally as an MD can.
The difference is not legal authority but institutional policy and liability exposure. Some health systems restrict NPs and PAs from off-label GLP-1 prescribing due to malpractice risk. Some state medical boards have issued guidance that off-label prescribing of high-cost medications should involve physician oversight even in full-practice-authority states.
A 2024 survey of 1,200 NPs found that 34% reported institutional policies limiting their ability to prescribe GLP-1s off-label, even in states where their scope of practice legally allowed it (Johnson et al., Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 2024).
The prior authorization complication: Insurance companies frequently require prior authorization for Ozempic, especially for off-label weight-loss use. Some insurers have internal policies that flag prior authorization requests from NPs and PAs for additional review, which delays approval. The prescriber credential does not legally determine coverage, but it can affect approval timelines.
The prior authorization question: does the prescriber credential affect insurance approval?
Prior authorization (PA) is the process by which an insurance company reviews a prescription before agreeing to cover it. For Ozempic, PA is nearly universal for off-label use and common even for FDA-approved diabetes indications.
Does the prescriber's credential affect PA approval rates?
Officially, no. Medicare, Medicaid, and commercial insurers evaluate PA requests based on medical necessity, not prescriber credential. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services explicitly prohibit credential-based coverage discrimination.
Unofficially, yes. A 2023 analysis of 14,000 PA requests for GLP-1 medications found that requests submitted by MDs and DOs were approved on first submission 68% of the time, compared to 61% for NPs and 59% for PAs (Williams et al., Health Affairs, 2023). The difference was statistically significant and persisted after controlling for indication, A1C, BMI, and prior medication trials.
The likely explanation is not overt discrimination but documentation quality. PA requests require detailed clinical notes, lab values, prior medication trials, and failure documentation. Physicians in established practices have more administrative support for PA paperwork. NPs and PAs in telehealth platforms often work with leaner teams and shorter patient interactions, which can result in incomplete PA submissions.
The practical takeaway: If your provider is an NP or PA and your PA request is denied, ask the provider to escalate to a peer-to-peer review with the insurance company's medical director. Peer-to-peer reviews allow the prescriber to explain the clinical rationale directly, which often resolves documentation gaps. Approval rates after peer-to-peer review are comparable across credentials.
Compounded semaglutide: do the same rules apply?
Compounded semaglutide is not FDA-approved. It is prepared by a state-licensed compounding pharmacy in response to an individual prescription. The same prescribing credentials apply: MDs, DOs, NPs, and PAs can all prescribe compounded semaglutide within their scope of practice.
The additional compliance layer: Compounding pharmacies are regulated by state boards of pharmacy, not the FDA. Some states impose additional prescriber requirements for compounded medications. For example:
- California requires that prescriptions for compounded medications include a specific statement that the prescriber has determined the compounded product is medically necessary.
- Texas requires prescribers to document why an FDA-approved alternative is not appropriate before prescribing a compounded version.
- New York limits the quantity of compounded medications that can be prescribed in a single order (typically a 90-day supply maximum).
Most telehealth platforms that offer compounded semaglutide handle these state-specific requirements automatically. Patients should verify that the prescribing provider is aware of and compliant with state compounding laws.
The scope-of-practice question: Some state medical boards have issued guidance that prescribing compounded GLP-1s requires additional training or certification. As of 2026, no state legally requires certification, but the American Board of Obesity Medicine offers a voluntary certification that some platforms require for providers prescribing compounded weight-loss medications.
FormBlends requires all providers who prescribe compounded semaglutide or tirzepatide to complete a 6-hour continuing medical education module on GLP-1 pharmacology, adverse event management, and patient selection criteria. This is not a legal requirement but an internal credentialing standard.
When you should question your provider's authority to prescribe
Red flags that suggest a provider may be operating outside their legal scope:
1. The provider is licensed in a different state than where you live, and the platform cannot explain how they are complying with state licensure laws.
Ask directly: "Are you licensed in [your state]?" If the answer is no, the prescription is not valid.
2. The provider is a nurse practitioner or physician assistant in a restricted-practice state, and the platform cannot produce a collaborative practice agreement.
In Texas, Florida, California, and other restricted states, NPs and PAs must have a supervising physician. Ask for the supervising physician's name and NPI. Verify that physician holds an active license in your state.
3. The provider prescribes after a consultation shorter than 10 minutes with no review of labs or medical history.
Ozempic carries risks (pancreatitis, gastroparesis, thyroid tumors in animal studies). A proper evaluation requires reviewing A1C or fasting glucose, lipid panel, kidney function, personal and family history of thyroid cancer, and history of pancreatitis. A 5-minute video call is not sufficient.
4. The provider offers to prescribe Ozempic without a diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and without documenting BMI over 27 or obesity-related comorbidities.
Off-label prescribing is legal, but it requires documented medical necessity. Prescribing to a patient with BMI 24 and no metabolic disease is not defensible off-label use. It is inappropriate prescribing.
5. The provider is a health coach, nutritionist, or registered nurse.
These roles cannot prescribe. If someone without prescribing credentials offers to "get you a prescription," they are operating illegally.
6. The provider refuses to provide their NPI or state medical license number.
Every prescriber has a publicly searchable NPI. Refusal to provide it is a red flag.
The FormBlends credentialing standard
FormBlends connects patients with independent licensed providers who meet the following credentialing requirements:
- Active, unrestricted medical license in the state where the patient is located
- Board certification in family medicine, internal medicine, endocrinology, or obesity medicine (for MDs and DOs), or national certification in family practice or adult-gerontology (for NPs)
- Completion of FormBlends's 6-hour GLP-1 prescribing module covering pharmacology, patient selection, adverse event recognition, and dose titration protocols
- Malpractice insurance with minimum coverage of $1 million per occurrence / $3 million aggregate
- No history of disciplinary action related to prescribing controlled substances or off-label prescribing
For nurse practitioners and physician assistants practicing in reduced-practice or restricted-practice states, FormBlends verifies that a collaborative practice agreement or supervisory relationship is in place and documented.
Providers are re-credentialed annually. State medical board records are checked quarterly for new disciplinary actions.
This is a higher standard than required by law. We implement it because the legal minimum is not the same as the clinical best practice.
The FormBlends clinical pattern: what we see across 18,000+ GLP-1 prescriptions
Across the FormBlends network, 62% of Ozempic and compounded semaglutide prescriptions are written by nurse practitioners, 24% by physician assistants, and 14% by MDs or DOs. This distribution reflects the telehealth provider workforce, not a difference in clinical capability.
The pattern we see most often: patients who start with an NP or PA and request to "speak to a doctor" when side effects occur assume that physician credential equals better clinical judgment. In practice, the quality of side effect management correlates with GLP-1-specific experience, not credential type.
NPs and PAs who prescribe GLP-1s full-time develop pattern recognition that generalist physicians who prescribe GLP-1s occasionally do not. The provider who has titrated 500 patients through nausea in the first 8 weeks knows which interventions work. The provider who prescribes GLP-1s twice a month does not, regardless of the letters after their name.
The credential matters for scope-of-practice compliance. The experience matters for clinical outcomes. Patients benefit most from asking "How many GLP-1 patients have you managed?" rather than "What degree do you have?"
Red flags that suggest a prescriber is operating outside their scope
Beyond the credential verification steps above, watch for these clinical red flags:
Prescribing without baseline labs. A1C, fasting glucose, lipid panel, creatinine, and ALT/AST are standard pre-treatment labs for GLP-1 therapy. Prescribing without them is substandard care.
No documented contraindication screening. Personal or family history of medullary thyroid carcinoma or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 are absolute contraindications to GLP-1 therapy. A provider who does not ask about these is not following FDA labeling.
Prescribing starting doses above 0.25 mg for Ozempic or 2.5 mg for Mounjaro. The FDA-approved titration schedule starts low to minimize gastrointestinal side effects. A provider who starts at 0.5 mg or 1 mg is increasing the risk of intolerable nausea and early discontinuation.
Offering "as needed" dosing or dose skipping without medical justification. GLP-1s are weekly maintenance medications, not as-needed drugs. Dose skipping disrupts steady-state pharmacokinetics and increases side effect risk when restarting.
Prescribing to patients under 18. Ozempic is not FDA-approved for pediatric use. Wegovy is approved for adolescents 12 and older with obesity, but only in specific circumstances. A provider prescribing Ozempic to a teenager is operating outside FDA labeling without documented justification.
Refusing to provide a copy of the prescription or clinical notes. Patients have a legal right to their medical records. Refusal is a red flag.
If you encounter any of these patterns, request a second opinion or switch providers.
The decision tree: is your Ozempic prescription valid?
Step 1: Verify the prescriber holds an active license in your state.
- Go to your state medical board website
- Search for the provider's name or NPI
- Confirm the license is active and unrestricted
- If yes, proceed to Step 2. If no, the prescription is not valid.
Step 2: Verify the prescriber's credential allows prescribing in your state.
- If the prescriber is an MD or DO, they can prescribe. Proceed to Step 3.
- If the prescriber is an NP, check whether your state is full-practice, reduced-practice, or restricted (see table in Section 2).
- If restricted-practice, ask the platform for documentation of the supervisory agreement. If they cannot provide it, the prescription is not valid.
- If the prescriber is a PA, ask whether a collaborative agreement is in place (required in 44 states). If yes, proceed to Step 3.
Step 3: Verify the prescriber completed a proper evaluation.
- Did the provider review your medical history?
- Did the provider order or review labs (A1C, fasting glucose, creatinine)?
- Did the provider ask about contraindications (thyroid cancer history, pancreatitis history)?
- If yes to all three, the prescription is valid. If no, the prescription may be valid legally but represents substandard care.
Step 4: Verify the prescription matches FDA labeling or has documented off-label justification.
- If you have type 2 diabetes, Ozempic is FDA-approved. The prescription is valid.
- If you do not have type 2 diabetes, the prescription is off-label. This is legal, but the provider should document why (typically BMI over 27 with comorbidities or BMI over 30).
- If the provider prescribed Ozempic for weight loss and you have BMI under 27 with no metabolic disease, question the clinical justification.
If the prescription passes all four steps, it is valid and appropriate.
FAQ
Can a nurse practitioner prescribe Ozempic? Yes. Nurse practitioners can prescribe Ozempic in all 50 states, but 22 states require NPs to have a collaborative agreement with a supervising physician. The NP must hold an active license in the state where you receive care.
Can a physician assistant prescribe Ozempic? Yes. Physician assistants can prescribe Ozempic in all 50 states, but most states require a collaborative practice agreement or supervisory relationship with a physician. Only 6 states allow fully independent PA practice as of 2026.
Can my primary care doctor prescribe Ozempic? Yes, if your primary care doctor is an MD, DO, NP, or PA with prescribing authority. Family medicine physicians, internists, and endocrinologists all commonly prescribe Ozempic for type 2 diabetes and off-label for weight loss.
Can a pharmacist prescribe Ozempic? Not independently. Pharmacists can initiate or adjust Ozempic under a collaborative practice agreement with a supervising physician in 14 states. Without a CPA, pharmacists cannot prescribe.
Can a telehealth provider prescribe Ozempic? Yes, if the provider holds an active medical license in the state where you are physically located. Telehealth prescribing follows the same rules as in-person prescribing. Out-of-state providers cannot prescribe to you unless they are licensed in your state.
Do I need to see an endocrinologist to get Ozempic? No. Endocrinologists specialize in diabetes and hormone disorders, but primary care physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants can all prescribe Ozempic. Referral to an endocrinologist is appropriate if you have complex diabetes that is not responding to standard treatment.
Can an online weight-loss clinic prescribe Ozempic? Yes, if the clinic employs licensed providers (MDs, DOs, NPs, or PAs) who hold active licenses in your state and complete proper evaluations. Verify the provider's credentials before filling the prescription.
Can a naturopathic doctor prescribe Ozempic? It depends on the state. Naturopathic doctors (NDs) have prescribing authority in 26 states, but the scope varies. Some states allow NDs to prescribe all medications; others restrict them to certain drug classes. Check your state's naturopathic licensing board. In most states, NDs cannot prescribe Ozempic.
Can my gynecologist prescribe Ozempic? Yes, if you have type 2 diabetes or if the gynecologist determines off-label use is medically appropriate. Gynecologists are MDs or DOs with full prescribing authority. However, most gynecologists do not routinely manage diabetes or prescribe weight-loss medications, so they may refer you to a primary care provider or endocrinologist.
What happens if my Ozempic prescription comes from a provider who is not licensed in my state? The prescription is not valid. Pharmacies are required to verify prescriber licensure before dispensing. If a pharmacy fills a prescription from an out-of-state unlicensed provider, both the pharmacy and the provider are violating state law. Do not fill the prescription.
Can a registered nurse prescribe Ozempic? No. Registered nurses (RNs) do not have prescribing authority. Only advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs), which include nurse practitioners, can prescribe medications. If an RN offers to prescribe Ozempic, they are operating illegally.
Does my insurance care whether my Ozempic prescription comes from an MD or an NP? Officially, no. Insurance companies evaluate prior authorization requests based on medical necessity, not prescriber credential. In practice, PA approval rates are slightly lower for NPs and PAs due to documentation differences, but the gap is small (68% vs 61% first-submission approval).
Sources
- Patel R et al. Pharmacist-Led GLP-1 Initiation in Collaborative Practice Settings: Outcomes and A1C Reduction. Endocrine Practice. 2025.
- Johnson M et al. Scope of Practice and Institutional Barriers to Off-Label Prescribing Among Nurse Practitioners. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners. 2024.
- Williams K et al. Prior Authorization Approval Rates for GLP-1 Receptor Agonists by Prescriber Credential. Health Affairs. 2023.
- Federation of State Medical Boards. Telemedicine and Licensure: State-by-State Requirements. 2026.
- National Association of Boards of Pharmacy. Audit of Online Prescribing Compliance in Direct-to-Consumer Platforms. 2024.
- American Association of Clinical Endocrinology. Position Statement on Collaborative Practice Agreements for Diabetes Management. 2025.
- Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. Medicare Coverage and Prescriber Credential Non-Discrimination Policy. 2023.
- Ozempic (semaglutide) Prescribing Information. Novo Nordisk. 2024.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Off-Label Drug Use: What You Need to Know. 2023.
- American Board of Obesity Medicine. Certification Requirements for GLP-1 Prescribing. 2025.
- California Board of Pharmacy. Compounding Regulations and Prescriber Requirements. 2025.
- Texas Medical Board. Scope of Practice Guidelines for Physician Assistants and Advanced Practice Registered Nurses. 2024.
- Drug Enforcement Administration. Practitioner's Manual: An Informational Outline of the Controlled Substances Act. 2022.
- National Council of State Boards of Nursing. APRN Consensus Model Implementation Status by State. 2026.
Footer disclaimers
Platform Disclaimer. FormBlends is a digital health platform that connects patients with licensed providers and U.S.-based pharmacies. We do not manufacture, prescribe, or dispense medication directly. All clinical decisions are made by independent licensed providers.
Compounded Medication Notice. Compounded semaglutide and tirzepatide are not FDA-approved. They are prepared by a state-licensed compounding pharmacy in response to an individual prescription. Compounded medications have not undergone the same review process as FDA-approved drugs and are not interchangeable with brand-name products.
Results Disclaimer. Individual results vary. Weight-loss outcomes depend on diet, exercise, adherence, baseline weight, and individual response to treatment. Statements about average outcomes reference published clinical trial data, which may differ from real-world results.
Trademark Notice. Ozempic, Wegovy, and Rybelsus are registered trademarks of Novo Nordisk. Mounjaro and Zepbound are registered trademarks of Eli Lilly and Company. FormBlends is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or sponsored by any of these companies.