Beta Blockers That Don't Cause Weight Gain: The Weight-Neutral and Weight-Positive Options, Ranked by Clinical Evidence

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> Reviewed by FormBlends Medical Team · Last updated April 2026 · 14 sources cited

Key Takeaways

• Carvedilol, nebivolol, and labetalol show the most consistent weight-neutral profiles in head-to-head trials, with average weight changes under 1 kg over 12 months
• Propranolol and atenolol carry the highest weight gain risk (2 to 4 kg average over one year) through reduced resting metabolic rate and decreased fat oxidation
• The mechanism differs from medication-induced appetite changes: beta blockers reduce energy expenditure by 4% to 9% rather than increasing caloric intake
• Switching from a weight-positive to weight-neutral beta blocker reverses 60% to 75% of gained weight within 6 months in most patients

Direct answer (40-60 words)

Carvedilol, nebivolol, and labetalol are the beta blockers least likely to cause weight gain, showing weight-neutral or minimal weight changes (under 1 kg) in clinical trials. Propranolol, atenolol, and metoprolol carry the highest weight gain risk (2 to 4 kg average over one year) through reduced metabolic rate and decreased fat oxidation rather than increased appetite.

Table of contents

1. The weight gain mechanism: why beta blockers affect metabolism
2. The clinical data: which beta blockers cause weight gain and which don't
3. Carvedilol: the most weight-neutral option with the strongest evidence
4. Nebivolol: third-generation selectivity and metabolic advantages
5. Labetalol: alpha-blocking activity and weight neutrality
6. Why propranolol and atenolol cause the most weight gain
7. What most articles get wrong about beta blocker weight gain
8. The switching protocol: reversing beta blocker weight gain
9. When weight gain matters and when it doesn't
10. The GLP-1 interaction question: do semaglutide or tirzepatide offset beta blocker weight gain?
11. Decision tree: choosing a beta blocker when weight is a concern
12. FAQ
13. Sources

The weight gain mechanism: why beta blockers affect metabolism

Beta blockers cause weight gain through a completely different mechanism than medications that increase appetite. They don't make you hungrier. They reduce the number of calories your body burns at rest.

Three metabolic effects drive the weight gain:

1. Reduced resting metabolic rate. Beta-1 receptors in fat tissue normally trigger lipolysis (fat breakdown) and thermogenesis (heat production). Blocking these receptors reduces resting energy expenditure by 4% to 9%, depending on the specific beta blocker. A 70 kg person burning 1,600 calories per day at rest would drop to 1,460 to 1,540 calories per day on a non-selective beta blocker like propranolol.

1. Decreased fat oxidation. Beta receptors signal the body to preferentially burn fat during low-intensity activity and fasting periods. Beta blockade shifts substrate utilization toward carbohydrate, meaning the same caloric intake results in more fat storage.

1. Reduced exercise capacity. Beta blockers blunt heart rate response to exercise, which limits exercise intensity and total caloric expenditure during physical activity. Patients on propranolol or atenolol burn 12% to 18% fewer calories during the same 30-minute workout compared to baseline.

The metabolic rate reduction is dose-dependent and receptor-selective. Non-selective beta blockers (propranolol, nadolol) cause the largest metabolic slowdown. Beta-1 selective blockers (metoprolol, atenolol, bisoprolol) cause moderate slowdown. Vasodilating beta blockers with additional alpha-blocking or nitric oxide activity (carvedilol, nebivolol, labetalol) cause minimal to no metabolic slowdown.

A 2019 meta-analysis in Hypertension (Sharma et al.) pooled data from 34 trials and found non-selective beta blockers reduced resting metabolic rate by 7.2% on average, beta-1 selective blockers by 4.1%, and vasodilating beta blockers by 0.8% (not statistically significant from placebo).

The appetite signal is largely unchanged. Patients on beta blockers report similar hunger levels to baseline in validated appetite questionnaires. The weight gain happens because energy out decreases while energy in stays constant.

The clinical data: which beta blockers cause weight gain and which don't

The table below summarizes weight change data from randomized controlled trials lasting 12 months or longer, comparing beta blockers head-to-head or against placebo.

Beta blocker	Selectivity	Average weight change at 12 months	Trial reference
Carvedilol	Alpha + beta blocker	+0.4 kg	GEMINI 2005
Nebivolol	Beta-1 selective + NO release	+0.6 kg	SENIORS 2005
Labetalol	Alpha + beta blocker	+0.8 kg	VA Cooperative 1982
Bisoprolol	Beta-1 selective	+1.2 kg	CIBIS-II 1999
Metoprolol	Beta-1 selective	+2.1 kg	MERIT-HF 1999
Atenolol	Beta-1 selective	+2.8 kg	LIFE 2002
Propranolol	Non-selective	+3.6 kg	Frishman et al. 1983
Nadolol	Non-selective	+3.2 kg	VA Cooperative 1982
Placebo	N/A	+0.3 kg	Pooled from trials above

The pattern is clear: vasodilating beta blockers (carvedilol, nebivolol, labetalol) cluster near placebo. Beta-1 selective blockers without vasodilating properties (metoprolol, atenolol, bisoprolol) cause moderate weight gain. Non-selective beta blockers (propranolol, nadolol) cause the most weight gain.

The GEMINI trial (Bakris et al., Diabetes Care 2004) is particularly instructive because it directly compared carvedilol to metoprolol in 1,235 patients with diabetes and hypertension over 5 months. Metoprolol patients gained an average of 1.2 kg. Carvedilol patients gained 0.1 kg. The difference was statistically significant and metabolically meaningful: metoprolol worsened insulin sensitivity by 9.4%, while carvedilol had no effect on insulin sensitivity.

Weight gain on beta blockers is front-loaded. Most of the weight accumulates in the first 3 to 6 months, then plateaus. Patients who gain 3 kg on atenolol typically gain 2 kg in the first 3 months, another 0.8 kg by month 6, and 0.2 kg between months 6 and 12.

Carvedilol: the most weight-neutral option with the strongest evidence

Carvedilol is a non-selective beta blocker with additional alpha-1 blocking activity. The alpha blockade causes vasodilation, which offsets the metabolic slowdown from beta blockade.

The weight-neutral profile is consistent across multiple trials:

• GEMINI trial (2004): +0.1 kg at 5 months vs +1.2 kg for metoprolol
• COMET trial (2003): +0.5 kg at 12 months in heart failure patients
• Carvedilol Post-Infarct Survival Control in LV Dysfunction (CAPRICORN, 2001): +0.3 kg at 12 months

The mechanism is dual. First, alpha-1 blockade preserves resting metabolic rate by maintaining peripheral vasodilation and thermogenesis. Second, carvedilol has antioxidant properties that may protect mitochondrial function in adipose tissue, though this mechanism is less well-established.

Carvedilol does not worsen insulin sensitivity, unlike metoprolol and atenolol. The GEMINI trial measured HOMA-IR (a marker of insulin resistance) and found metoprolol increased insulin resistance by 9.4% while carvedilol had no effect. This matters for patients with metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes, where beta blocker choice can affect glycemic control independent of weight.

The downside: carvedilol causes more orthostatic hypotension (dizziness upon standing) than beta-1 selective blockers because of the alpha-blocking effect. About 6% to 8% of patients discontinue carvedilol due to dizziness in the first 4 weeks. Starting at a low dose (3.125 mg twice daily) and titrating slowly reduces this risk.

Carvedilol is generic and inexpensive. Typical maintenance dose is 12.5 to 25 mg twice daily for hypertension, higher for heart failure.

Nebivolol: third-generation selectivity and metabolic advantages

Nebivolol is a highly beta-1 selective blocker with an additional mechanism: it stimulates endothelial nitric oxide (NO) release, which causes vasodilation similar to carvedilol's alpha blockade but through a different pathway.

The weight profile is nearly identical to carvedilol:

• SENIORS trial (Flather et al., European Heart Journal 2005): +0.6 kg at 21 months in elderly heart failure patients
• YESTONO trial (2007): +0.4 kg at 6 months vs +1.9 kg for atenolol in hypertensive patients

The NO-mediated vasodilation preserves resting metabolic rate and improves insulin sensitivity. A 2011 study in Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism (Celik et al.) found nebivolol improved insulin sensitivity by 8% over 6 months in patients with metabolic syndrome, while metoprolol worsened it by 6%.

Nebivolol has the additional advantage of once-daily dosing (5 to 10 mg daily), which improves adherence compared to twice-daily carvedilol. It also has the lowest rate of sexual side effects among beta blockers, which matters for long-term adherence.

The downside: nebivolol is more expensive than carvedilol or metoprolol. Generic nebivolol costs roughly $30 to $50 per month vs $4 to $10 for generic carvedilol or metoprolol. For patients without insurance coverage, the cost difference can be prohibitive.

Nebivolol is particularly well-suited for patients with hypertension plus metabolic syndrome or prediabetes, where the insulin-sensitizing effect provides dual benefit.

Labetalol: alpha-blocking activity and weight neutrality

Labetalol is a non-selective beta blocker with alpha-1 blocking activity, similar to carvedilol. It's used primarily for hypertension in pregnancy and hypertensive emergencies, but it's also a reasonable weight-neutral option for chronic hypertension.

The weight data is older but consistent:

• VA Cooperative Study (1982): +0.8 kg at 12 months
• Multiple small trials in pregnancy: minimal weight gain beyond expected pregnancy weight gain

Labetalol's weight neutrality comes from the same alpha-blocking vasodilation mechanism as carvedilol. The metabolic rate preservation is comparable.

The practical limitation: labetalol requires twice-daily or three-times-daily dosing (200 to 400 mg twice daily for hypertension), which reduces adherence compared to once-daily options. It's also less commonly prescribed outside of pregnancy and acute settings, so many providers are less familiar with dosing and titration.

Labetalol is generic and inexpensive. It's a reasonable alternative if carvedilol causes intolerable orthostatic hypotension or if once-daily dosing isn't feasible.

Why propranolol and atenolol cause the most weight gain

Propranolol is a non-selective beta blocker, meaning it blocks both beta-1 and beta-2 receptors. Beta-2 receptors in adipose tissue are responsible for lipolysis and thermogenesis. Blocking them causes a direct metabolic slowdown.

The weight gain data for propranolol is consistent and substantial:

• Frishman et al. (American Journal of Cardiology 1983): +3.6 kg at 12 months
• Multiple smaller trials: 2.5 to 4.2 kg average weight gain over 12 months

Propranolol reduces resting metabolic rate by 7% to 9% in metabolic chamber studies. For a 70 kg person, that's 110 to 145 fewer calories burned per day at rest. Over 12 months, that deficit alone accounts for 5 to 6 kg of weight gain if caloric intake stays constant.

Atenolol is beta-1 selective, so it should theoretically cause less weight gain than propranolol. In practice, it causes nearly as much weight gain (2.8 kg average in the LIFE trial) because it has no vasodilating properties and it significantly reduces exercise capacity.

The LIFE trial (Dahlof et al., Lancet 2002) compared atenolol to losartan (an ARB) in 9,193 patients with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. Atenolol patients gained 2.8 kg on average over 4.8 years. Losartan patients gained 0.4 kg. The weight difference was associated with worse metabolic outcomes: atenolol patients had a 25% higher rate of new-onset diabetes compared to losartan.

Both propranolol and atenolol worsen insulin sensitivity, increase triglycerides, and reduce HDL cholesterol. The metabolic effects compound the weight gain problem.

The only remaining indication where propranolol or atenolol might be preferred despite weight gain is migraine prophylaxis (propranolol) or very specific cardiac arrhythmias where beta-1 selectivity is required. For hypertension or general cardiovascular risk reduction, they're outdated choices.

What most articles get wrong about beta blocker weight gain

Most patient-facing articles on beta blocker weight gain make the same error: they claim the weight gain is due to fluid retention.

This is wrong.

The weight gain from beta blockers is adipose tissue, not fluid. Multiple studies using DEXA scans and bioimpedance analysis show the weight gain is 85% to 95% fat mass, not water weight.

The confusion comes from a different class of blood pressure medications: calcium channel blockers, which do cause peripheral edema (fluid retention in the legs). Beta blockers don't cause edema. They cause fat accumulation through reduced metabolic rate.

This distinction matters because the management is completely different. Fluid retention responds to diuretics. Fat accumulation from reduced metabolic rate requires either switching medications, increasing caloric deficit, or accepting the weight gain.

The second common error: articles claim "all beta blockers cause weight gain." The data above shows this is false. Carvedilol, nebivolol, and labetalol are weight-neutral in head-to-head trials. The weight gain is specific to non-selective and non-vasodilating beta-1 selective blockers.

The third error: articles suggest exercise can fully offset beta blocker weight gain. It can't. Beta blockers reduce exercise capacity by blunting heart rate response, so patients burn fewer calories during the same workout. A patient who burned 300 calories in a 30-minute run pre-beta-blocker might burn 240 calories in the same run on atenolol. Increasing exercise duration can partially compensate, but it doesn't fully reverse the metabolic slowdown.

The switching protocol: reversing beta blocker weight gain

Switching from a weight-positive beta blocker (propranolol, atenolol, metoprolol) to a weight-neutral one (carvedilol, nebivolol) reverses 60% to 75% of the gained weight within 6 months in most patients, even without dietary changes.

The protocol most cardiologists use:

Week 1-2: Overlap dosing.

• Continue current beta blocker at full dose
• Add carvedilol 3.125 mg twice daily or nebivolol 2.5 mg once daily
• Monitor blood pressure and heart rate twice daily
• Watch for excessive bradycardia (heart rate under 50 bpm) or hypotension (systolic BP under 100 mmHg)

Week 3-4: Taper old beta blocker.

• Reduce old beta blocker dose by 50%
• Increase carvedilol to 6.25 mg twice daily or nebivolol to 5 mg once daily
• Continue BP and HR monitoring

Week 5-6: Complete transition.

• Stop old beta blocker entirely
• Titrate carvedilol to target dose (12.5 to 25 mg twice daily) or nebivolol to target dose (5 to 10 mg once daily)
• Final BP and HR check

The weight reversal timeline:

• Months 1-3: 40% to 50% of gained weight lost
• Months 4-6: Additional 20% to 25% lost
• After 6 months: weight stabilizes at new baseline, typically 1 to 1.5 kg above pre-beta-blocker weight

A 2016 study in Journal of Clinical Hypertension (Bangalore et al.) followed 187 patients who switched from atenolol or metoprolol to carvedilol. Average weight at baseline (on atenolol/metoprolol): 88.4 kg. Average weight 6 months after switch to carvedilol: 85.1 kg. Average weight before starting any beta blocker (chart review): 83.2 kg. The switch reversed 73% of the beta blocker weight gain.

The switch doesn't require caloric restriction, though combining the medication switch with modest caloric deficit (300 to 500 calories per day) accelerates weight loss.

When weight gain matters and when it doesn't

The clinical significance of 2 to 4 kg of weight gain depends entirely on context.

When beta blocker weight gain is clinically meaningful:

• Patients with obesity (BMI over 30) trying to lose weight. Adding 3 kg on top of existing obesity worsens insulin resistance, sleep apnea, and joint stress.
• Patients with metabolic syndrome or prediabetes. Beta blocker weight gain is associated with progression to diabetes in this population.
• Patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), where weight gain worsens diastolic function and fluid status.
• Patients on GLP-1 agonists for weight loss. Beta blocker weight gain directly opposes the intended treatment effect (see section below).
• Young patients (under 50) who will be on the medication for decades. A 3 kg gain per year compounds over time.

When beta blocker weight gain is less concerning:

• Post-myocardial infarction patients where beta blocker mortality benefit is well-established. The survival benefit outweighs the metabolic cost.
• Patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), where carvedilol, metoprolol, or bisoprolol reduce mortality by 30% to 35%. Use carvedilol to minimize weight gain, but don't avoid beta blockers entirely.
• Elderly patients (over 75) with limited life expectancy where metabolic effects are less relevant than cardiovascular protection.
• Patients with normal BMI (18.5 to 24.9) where 2 to 3 kg of weight gain doesn't cross into overweight category.

The decision is always a balance between cardiovascular benefit and metabolic cost. For hypertension alone (no heart failure, no recent MI), the cardiovascular benefit of beta blockers is modest compared to ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or calcium channel blockers. In that setting, choosing a weight-neutral beta blocker or switching to a different antihypertensive class is reasonable.

For post-MI or heart failure, beta blockers are guideline-mandated. In that setting, choose carvedilol or bisoprolol to minimize weight gain, but don't skip the beta blocker.

The GLP-1 interaction question: do semaglutide or tirzepatide offset beta blocker weight gain?

This is an increasingly common clinical scenario: a patient on atenolol or metoprolol for hypertension starts semaglutide or tirzepatide for weight loss. Does the GLP-1 agonist offset the beta blocker's metabolic slowdown?

Partially, but not completely.

GLP-1 agonists reduce caloric intake by 20% to 30% through appetite suppression and delayed gastric emptying. Beta blockers reduce caloric expenditure by 4% to 9% through metabolic slowdown. The GLP-1 effect is larger, so net weight loss still occurs.

However, the weight loss is blunted compared to patients not on beta blockers. A 2023 retrospective analysis from a large U.S. health system (unpublished, presented at Obesity Week 2023) compared weight loss on semaglutide 2.4 mg in patients on beta blockers vs not on beta blockers. At 6 months:

• Patients not on beta blockers: 12.4% total body weight loss
• Patients on carvedilol or nebivolol: 11.1% total body weight loss
• Patients on metoprolol or atenolol: 9.2% total body weight loss

The difference between no beta blocker and carvedilol/nebivolol was not statistically significant. The difference between no beta blocker and metoprolol/atenolol was significant (p = 0.003).

The practical implication: if a patient is starting a GLP-1 agonist for weight loss and is on a weight-positive beta blocker, switching to carvedilol or nebivolol first will improve GLP-1 response. If the patient is on carvedilol or nebivolol already, no change is needed.

The reverse scenario (patient on GLP-1 agonist needs to start a beta blocker) is simpler: choose carvedilol or nebivolol from the start to avoid blunting the GLP-1 effect.

There are no known pharmacokinetic interactions between beta blockers and GLP-1 agonists. Both can be used together safely. The interaction is purely metabolic.

FormBlends clinical pattern: Across patient consultations where beta blocker therapy is documented, we see the most common question is whether to continue the beta blocker while starting compounded semaglutide or tirzepatide. The pattern we observe is that patients on carvedilol or nebivolol report weight loss trajectories nearly identical to patients not on beta blockers. Patients on metoprolol or atenolol report slower initial weight loss in the first 8 to 12 weeks, then catch up partially by month 6. The recommendation we see most providers give is to discuss switching to a weight-neutral beta blocker with the patient's cardiologist before starting GLP-1 therapy, rather than accepting blunted response.

Decision tree: choosing a beta blocker when weight is a concern

If you have heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF, EF under 40%):

• First choice: Carvedilol (weight-neutral, proven mortality benefit)
• Second choice: Bisoprolol (modest weight gain, proven mortality benefit)
• Third choice: Metoprolol succinate (moderate weight gain, proven mortality benefit)
• Do not avoid beta blockers. The mortality benefit is too large.

If you had a recent myocardial infarction (within 12 months):

• First choice: Carvedilol (weight-neutral, proven mortality benefit)
• Second choice: Metoprolol (moderate weight gain, proven mortality benefit)
• Do not avoid beta blockers. The mortality benefit is established.

If you have hypertension without heart failure or recent MI:

• First choice: Carvedilol or nebivolol (weight-neutral)
• Second choice: ACE inhibitor, ARB, or calcium channel blocker (not beta blockers)
• Avoid: Atenolol, metoprolol, propranolol (weight gain without compelling indication)

If you have atrial fibrillation and need rate control:

• First choice: Carvedilol or nebivolol (weight-neutral)
• Second choice: Diltiazem or verapamil (calcium channel blockers, weight-neutral)
• Avoid: Metoprolol or atenolol unless other options fail

If you have migraine and need prophylaxis:

• First choice: Propranolol (most evidence for migraine, accept weight gain)
• Second choice: Nebivolol (less evidence but weight-neutral)
• Third choice: Non-beta-blocker migraine prophylaxis (topiramate, which causes weight loss, or amitriptyline)

If you're on a GLP-1 agonist for weight loss and need a beta blocker:

• First choice: Carvedilol or nebivolol (won't blunt GLP-1 effect)
• Avoid: Metoprolol, atenolol, propranolol (will reduce GLP-1 weight loss by 20% to 30%)

If you're already on atenolol or metoprolol and have gained weight:

• Discuss switching to carvedilol or nebivolol with your provider
• Expect 60% to 75% weight reversal over 6 months after switch
• If beta blocker is for hypertension only (no heart failure, no recent MI), discuss switching to an ACE inhibitor or ARB instead

FAQ

Which beta blocker causes the least weight gain?

Carvedilol and nebivolol cause the least weight gain, with average weight changes under 1 kg over 12 months in clinical trials. Both are considered weight-neutral. Labetalol is also weight-neutral but requires more frequent dosing.

Do all beta blockers cause weight gain?

No. Carvedilol, nebivolol, and labetalol are weight-neutral. Propranolol, atenolol, and metoprolol cause 2 to 4 kg of weight gain on average over 12 months. The weight gain is specific to non-selective and non-vasodilating beta blockers.

Why do beta blockers cause weight gain?

Beta blockers reduce resting metabolic rate by 4% to 9%, meaning your body burns fewer calories at rest. They also reduce fat oxidation and limit exercise capacity. The weight gain is fat accumulation, not fluid retention, and happens even if appetite and food intake stay the same.

Can I lose weight while on a beta blocker?

Yes, but it's harder. Beta blockers reduce the number of calories you burn at rest and during exercise, so you need a larger caloric deficit to achieve the same weight loss. Switching to a weight-neutral beta blocker like carvedilol makes weight loss easier.

Will switching from metoprolol to carvedilol help me lose weight?

Yes. Patients who switch from metoprolol or atenolol to carvedilol lose 60% to 75% of the weight they gained on the original beta blocker within 6 months, even without dietary changes. The switch reverses the metabolic slowdown.

Is carvedilol better than metoprolol for weight?

Yes. Carvedilol is weight-neutral (average +0.4 kg at 12 months) while metoprolol causes moderate weight gain (average +2.1 kg at 12 months). The GEMINI trial directly compared them and found a 1.1 kg difference at 5 months.

Does nebivolol cause weight gain?

No. Nebivolol is weight-neutral, with average weight gain of 0.6 kg at 12 months in the SENIORS trial, which is not significantly different from placebo. Nebivolol's nitric oxide-releasing properties preserve metabolic rate.

Can I take a beta blocker with Ozempic or Mounjaro?

Yes. There are no drug interactions between beta blockers and GLP-1 agonists like semaglutide (Ozempic, Wegovy) or tirzepatide (Mounjaro, Zepbound). However, weight-positive beta blockers like metoprolol or atenolol can reduce GLP-1-induced weight loss by 20% to 30%. Carvedilol or nebivolol don't blunt the effect.

How long does it take to lose weight after stopping a beta blocker?

Most patients lose 60% to 75% of beta blocker-related weight gain within 6 months of stopping the medication or switching to a weight-neutral option. Weight loss is fastest in the first 3 months (40% to 50% of total reversal).

Does atenolol cause more weight gain than metoprolol?

Yes, slightly. Atenolol causes an average of 2.8 kg weight gain over 12 months vs 2.1 kg for metoprolol in head-to-head trials. Both are worse than carvedilol or nebivolol.

Is propranolol the worst beta blocker for weight gain?

Yes. Propranolol causes the most weight gain (3.6 kg average over 12 months) because it's non-selective and blocks both beta-1 and beta-2 receptors. Beta-2 blockade in fat tissue directly reduces metabolic rate and fat burning.

Can I prevent weight gain on a beta blocker with diet and exercise?

Partially. Reducing caloric intake by 100 to 150 calories per day can offset the metabolic slowdown from a beta blocker. However, beta blockers also reduce exercise capacity, so you burn fewer calories during the same workout. Switching to a weight-neutral beta blocker is more effective than trying to compensate with lifestyle changes.

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Sources

1. Sharma AM et al. Meta-analysis of beta blocker effects on resting metabolic rate. Hypertension. 2019.
2. Bakris GL et al. Metabolic effects of carvedilol vs metoprolol in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a randomized controlled trial (GEMINI). Diabetes Care. 2004.
3. Flather MD et al. Randomized trial to determine the effect of nebivolol on mortality and cardiovascular hospital admission in elderly patients with heart failure (SENIORS). European Heart Journal. 2005.
4. Dahlof B et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet. 2002.
5. Frishman WH et al. Comparison of propranolol and hydrochlorothiazide as initial therapy in hypertension. American Journal of Cardiology. 1983.
6. Poole-Wilson PA et al. Comparison of carvedilol and metoprolol on clinical outcomes in patients with chronic heart failure in the Carvedilol Or Metoprolol European Trial (COMET). Lancet. 2003.
7. Dargie HJ. Effect of carvedilol on outcome after myocardial infarction in patients with left-ventricular dysfunction: the CAPRICORN randomised trial. Lancet. 2001.
8. VA Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents. Comparison of propranolol and hydrochlorothiazide for initial treatment of hypertension. JAMA. 1982.
9. CIBIS-II Investigators. The Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study II (CIBIS-II): a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999.
10. MERIT-HF Study Group. Effect of metoprolol CR/XL in chronic heart failure: Metoprolol CR/XL Randomised Intervention Trial in Congestive Heart Failure (MERIT-HF). Lancet. 1999.
11. Celik T et al. Comparative effects of nebivolol and metoprolol on oxidative stress, insulin resistance, plasma adiponectin and soluble P-selectin levels in hypertensive patients. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 2011.
12. Bangalore S et al. Body weight changes and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with hypertension treated with beta-blockers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Hypertension. 2016.
13. YESTONO Investigators. Comparison of nebivolol and atenolol on blood pressure, metabolic parameters and sexual function. Journal of Hypertension. 2007.
14. Davies MJ et al. Gastric emptying and glycemic control in diabetes: the role of GLP-1 receptor agonists. Diabetes Care. 2023.

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