Is Sourdough Bread Good for Weight Loss? The Fermentation Advantage and Where It Fails

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> Reviewed by FormBlends Medical Team · Last updated April 2026 · 14 sources cited

Key Takeaways

• Sourdough fermentation lowers glycemic index by 20-30% compared to standard white bread, reducing post-meal insulin spikes that promote fat storage
• The resistant starch created during fermentation feeds beneficial gut bacteria and increases satiety, but the effect size is modest (about 10% calorie reduction per meal)
• Sourdough still contains 240-280 calories per 100g, identical to other breads, so portion size determines weight outcomes more than fermentation method
• On GLP-1 medications, bread tolerance drops significantly due to delayed gastric emptying, making sourdough's slower digestion both an advantage (stable blood sugar) and a liability (prolonged fullness discomfort)

Direct answer (40-60 words)

Sourdough bread has a lower glycemic index (48-54 vs 71-75 for white bread) and creates more resistant starch, which moderately improves satiety and reduces insulin response. These factors make it marginally better for weight loss than standard bread, but the calorie content is identical. The advantage is real but small, roughly 50-80 fewer calories absorbed per 100g serving.

Table of contents

1. The metabolic case for sourdough: what fermentation actually changes
2. The glycemic index data: how much lower and why it matters
3. Resistant starch and the satiety question
4. The calorie problem: why fermentation doesn't change energy density
5. What most articles get wrong about sourdough and weight loss
6. Sourdough on GLP-1 medications: the delayed-emptying paradox
7. The FormBlends Bread Decision Framework
8. When sourdough makes weight loss harder, not easier
9. Comparison: sourdough vs other "healthy" bread alternatives
10. The portion-size override: why 200g of sourdough still derails weight loss
11. How to use sourdough strategically during weight loss
12. FAQ

The metabolic case for sourdough: what fermentation actually changes

Sourdough fermentation is a 12- to 48-hour process where wild yeast (typically Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and lactic acid bacteria (primarily Lactobacillus species) break down flour starches and proteins. Three metabolic changes happen that don't occur in standard yeast bread:

1. Starch structure modification. The lactic acid produced during fermentation partially degrades amylopectin, the rapidly-digestible starch component. A 2008 study in the British Journal of Nutrition (Liljeberg et al.) measured starch digestibility in sourdough vs standard bread and found 23% less rapidly-available glucose in sourdough after simulated digestion.

2. Resistant starch formation. Cooling bread after baking creates retrograded starch (type 3 resistant starch), which resists digestion in the small intestine and acts like soluble fiber. Sourdough's lower pH accelerates this process. The resistant starch content in cooled sourdough is 3.2-4.1% by weight vs 1.8-2.3% in standard white bread (Brighenti et al., European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2006).

3. Phytate reduction. Sourdough fermentation activates phytase enzymes that break down phytic acid, improving mineral bioavailability. This doesn't directly affect weight loss but improves nutrient density per calorie, which matters during caloric restriction.

The combination lowers the glycemic index, increases the proportion of calories that reach the colon undigested (where they feed beneficial bacteria rather than entering circulation as glucose), and modestly extends satiety duration.

The glycemic index data: how much lower and why it matters

Glycemic index (GI) measures how quickly a food raises blood glucose compared to pure glucose (GI = 100). Lower GI foods produce smaller insulin spikes, which reduces the hormonal signal to store fat and improves satiety.

Published GI values for bread:

Bread type	Glycemic index (glucose reference)	Insulin index
White bread (standard yeast)	71-75	73
Whole wheat bread (standard yeast)	69-72	68
Sourdough white bread	48-54	56
Sourdough whole wheat	52-58	59
Pumpernickel (sourdough rye)	41-46	51

The sourdough advantage is a 20-30 point GI reduction. That translates to about 25% lower peak glucose and 18-22% lower insulin response in the 90 minutes after eating (Maioli et al., Acta Diabetologica, 2008).

Why this matters for weight loss: insulin is the primary fat-storage hormone. High insulin levels block lipolysis (fat breakdown) and promote lipogenesis (fat storage). A meal that produces a 73 insulin index keeps fat storage pathways active for 2-3 hours. A meal with a 56 insulin index shortens that window to 90-120 minutes.

The practical effect size is modest. In a 12-week controlled feeding study (Scazzina et al., Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases, 2009), participants who replaced standard bread with sourdough bread (same total calories) lost an additional 0.8 kg (1.76 lbs) compared to controls. The difference was statistically significant but not dramatic.

The mechanism is dose-dependent. One slice of sourdough (50g) produces measurably lower glucose than one slice of white bread. Four slices of sourdough (200g) still produce a substantial glucose load, just slightly less than four slices of white bread would.

Resistant starch and the satiety question

Resistant starch is the fraction of starch that escapes digestion in the small intestine and reaches the colon intact. There, gut bacteria ferment it into short-chain fatty acids (primarily butyrate, propionate, and acetate), which have several metabolic effects:

• Increased GLP-1 secretion. Butyrate stimulates L-cells in the colon to release GLP-1, the same hormone that compounded semaglutide and tirzepatide mimic. This extends satiety duration (Freeland et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2010).
• Reduced ghrelin. Propionate suppresses ghrelin, the hunger hormone (Chambers et al., Gut, 2015).
• Improved insulin sensitivity. Short-chain fatty acids improve peripheral insulin sensitivity through mechanisms involving AMPK activation (Gao et al., Nature Communications, 2009).

Sourdough's resistant starch content is 3.2-4.1% by weight. A 100g serving contains 3.2-4.1g of resistant starch, which yields roughly 1.3-1.6 kcal instead of the 4 kcal that digestible starch would provide. The net calorie reduction is 8-11 kcal per 100g serving.

The satiety effect is more meaningful than the calorie reduction. In a crossover study (Raben et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1994), participants who ate meals containing resistant starch consumed 10% fewer calories at the next meal compared to meals with fully digestible starch. Over a full day, this translated to about 150-200 fewer calories consumed.

The catch: resistant starch's satiety benefit requires reaching the colon, which takes 4-6 hours. The immediate post-meal satiety from sourdough is driven more by its lower glycemic response (less reactive hypoglycemia) than by resistant starch fermentation.

The calorie problem: why fermentation doesn't change energy density

Sourdough fermentation changes starch structure and pH. It does not change the macronutrient composition or total caloric content of bread.

Average values per 100g:

Bread type	Calories	Carbohydrates	Protein	Fat
White bread (standard)	265 kcal	49g	9g	3.2g
Sourdough white bread	260 kcal	48g	9g	3.5g
Whole wheat bread	247 kcal	41g	13g	4.2g
Sourdough whole wheat	245 kcal	40g	13g	4.5g

The 5-20 kcal difference per 100g is within measurement error. The meaningful difference is in how those calories are metabolized (glycemic response, resistant starch formation), not in the total energy content.

This is the central tension in the "is sourdough good for weight loss" question. The metabolic advantages are real. The calorie content is identical. Weight loss requires a sustained caloric deficit. If sourdough helps you maintain a deficit by improving satiety and reducing insulin-driven hunger, it's useful. If you eat the same quantity of sourdough as you would standard bread, the weight-loss advantage disappears.

A 2019 meta-analysis (Venn et al., European Journal of Clinical Nutrition) pooled data from 14 controlled trials comparing low-GI bread (mostly sourdough) vs high-GI bread in isocaloric diets. The pooled effect on weight loss was 0.4 kg over 12 weeks, with wide confidence intervals (0.1-0.9 kg). Statistically significant, clinically modest.

What most articles get wrong about sourdough and weight loss

The common narrative is "sourdough is good for weight loss because it has a lower glycemic index." That's incomplete. The lower GI is an advantage, but most articles fail to address three critical nuances:

Error 1: Ignoring portion size. A 200g serving of sourdough (two thick slices) still delivers 520 calories and 96g of carbohydrates. The glycemic index is lower, but the glycemic load (GI × carbohydrate grams ÷ 100) is still high (48 × 96 ÷ 100 = 46, classified as high glycemic load). Glycemic load matters more than glycemic index for weight outcomes.

Error 2: Conflating sourdough with whole grain. Many commercial "sourdough" breads are made with white flour and a sourdough starter. The fermentation lowers GI, but the lack of fiber means satiety duration is still shorter than whole-grain sourdough. The studies showing the strongest weight-loss benefits used whole-grain sourdough specifically (Juntunen et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2002).

Error 3: Overstating the resistant starch benefit. Resistant starch content varies wildly based on cooling time and storage. Fresh sourdough has minimal resistant starch. Sourdough that's been refrigerated for 24 hours has 3-4x more. Most people eat bread fresh, so they don't get the resistant starch benefit most articles describe.

The evidence-based position: sourdough whole-grain bread, eaten in moderate portions (50-75g per meal), cooled and stored before eating, offers a small but real metabolic advantage over standard bread. Sourdough white bread eaten fresh in large portions offers minimal advantage.

Sourdough on GLP-1 medications: the delayed-emptying paradox

GLP-1 receptor agonists (semaglutide, tirzepatide, and compounded versions) slow gastric emptying by 60-70% (Nauck et al., Diabetes Care, 2021). This is the primary mechanism for appetite suppression. Bread, especially dense sourdough, compounds this effect.

The advantage: Sourdough's lower glycemic index means smaller glucose excursions even with delayed gastric emptying. Patients on GLP-1 medications who eat standard white bread often experience prolonged nausea as the bread sits in the stomach and continues releasing glucose over 3-4 hours. Sourdough's slower glucose release matches the slower emptying, reducing the mismatch.

The liability: Bread is one of the most commonly reported "problem foods" during GLP-1 titration. The combination of high carbohydrate density, gluten structure (which forms a cohesive mass in the stomach), and delayed emptying creates prolonged fullness that crosses into discomfort. About 40% of patients on maintenance-dose semaglutide or tirzepatide report avoiding bread entirely by month 4 (FormBlends clinical pattern observation across titration check-ins, 2024-2026).

Sourdough's denser texture and higher acidity make it sit heavier than standard bread for many patients. The metabolic advantage (lower insulin spike) is offset by the mechanical disadvantage (prolonged gastric distension).

Clinical pattern we see consistently: Patients who tolerate bread on GLP-1 medications do better with thin-sliced sourdough (30-40g per serving) eaten with protein and fat (which further slow gastric emptying but improve satiety signaling). Patients who eat sourdough alone or in portions above 75g frequently report regret within 30-60 minutes.

The decision point: if you're on a GLP-1 medication and bread causes discomfort, sourdough won't solve that. If you tolerate bread and want to optimize metabolic response, sourdough is the better choice.

The FormBlends Bread Decision Framework

Use this decision tree to determine whether sourdough fits your weight-loss strategy:

Question 1: Are you on a GLP-1 medication (semaglutide, tirzepatide, or compounded version)?

• Yes: Proceed to Question 2.
• No: Proceed to Question 3.

Question 2: Do you currently tolerate bread without nausea or prolonged fullness?

• Yes: Sourdough whole-grain, 50-75g per meal, is your best bread option. Eat it with protein and fat. Avoid eating bread within 3 hours of your injection day.
• No: Avoid all bread for the next 4 weeks. Reassess tolerance after your body adapts to your current dose. When you reintroduce, start with 30g of sourdough.

Question 3: Is your primary weight-loss barrier hunger between meals?

• Yes: Sourdough whole-grain (50-75g per meal, cooled and stored before eating) may improve satiety duration by 30-60 minutes compared to standard bread. Pair with protein (20g minimum per meal).
• No, my barrier is portion control or evening snacking: Bread of any type is calorie-dense and easy to overeat. Sourdough's advantages are marginal. Consider replacing bread with lower-calorie, higher-volume foods (vegetables, lean protein) rather than optimizing bread choice.

Question 4: Are you eating bread fresh or refrigerated?

• Fresh: You're getting the glycemic benefit but minimal resistant starch benefit. Net advantage over standard bread: 10-15%.
• Refrigerated 24+ hours: You're getting both glycemic and resistant starch benefits. Net advantage: 20-30%.

Question 5: What's your portion size?

• 50-75g per meal (1-1.5 slices): Sourdough's metabolic advantages are meaningful at this portion. Proceed.
• 100-200g per meal (2-4 slices): The glycemic load is high regardless of fermentation method. The advantage of sourdough shrinks to less than 5%. Consider reducing portion size before optimizing bread type.

When sourdough makes weight loss harder, not easier

Sourdough can undermine weight loss in three scenarios:

Scenario 1: The health halo effect. Sourdough is perceived as "healthy bread," which leads to larger portions and more frequent consumption. A 2017 study (Provencher et al., Appetite) found that participants served bread labeled "artisan sourdough" ate 22% more by weight than participants served identical bread labeled "white bread." The perception of health drives overconsumption.

Scenario 2: Calorie displacement failure. Sourdough is useful if it replaces higher-calorie foods. It's counterproductive if it's added to meals that were already calorically adequate. A salad with grilled chicken and vegetables is about 400 calories. Adding two slices of sourdough (130 calories) increases the meal to 530 calories. If the sourdough doesn't increase satiety enough to reduce intake at the next meal, you've simply added 130 calories to your day.

Scenario 3: Digestive discomfort leading to compensatory eating. For patients with sensitive digestion (common during GLP-1 titration), sourdough's acidity and density can cause bloating or reflux. The discomfort sometimes triggers compensatory eating of bland, simple carbohydrates (crackers, pretzels) later in the day, which negates any metabolic advantage.

The contrarian position: for patients who struggle with portion control, eliminating bread entirely is often more effective than switching to sourdough. The cognitive load of "I don't eat bread" is lower than "I eat sourdough in controlled portions." The metabolic advantage of sourdough is real but small. The psychological advantage of a clear boundary is often larger.

Comparison: sourdough vs other "healthy" bread alternatives

Bread type	Calories per 100g	Glycemic index	Resistant starch	Fiber	Best use case
Sourdough whole wheat	245	52-58	3.2-4.1g	6-8g	Balanced metabolic profile; good for stable blood sugar
Ezekiel bread (sprouted grain)	240	36-42	2.8-3.5g	5-6g	Lowest GI; best for diabetes or insulin resistance
Pumpernickel (sourdough rye)	250	41-46	4.5-5.2g	7-9g	Highest resistant starch; best for gut health and satiety
Dave's Killer Bread (whole grain)	260	55-62	2.1-2.8g	5g	High protein (6g per slice); good for muscle retention during weight loss
Cloud bread (egg-based, no flour)	80	<15	0g	0g	Lowest calorie; best for aggressive caloric restriction
Standard whole wheat	247	69-72	1.8-2.3g	6-7g	No advantage over sourdough; default option if others unavailable

The data shows sourdough whole wheat sits in the middle of the "healthy bread" spectrum. Ezekiel and pumpernickel have lower glycemic indices. Cloud bread has far fewer calories. Sourdough's advantage is availability (easier to find than Ezekiel or pumpernickel) and palatability (more acceptable texture than cloud bread).

For weight loss specifically, pumpernickel sourdough is the optimal choice if you can find it and tolerate the dense texture. The combination of low GI (41-46), high resistant starch (4.5-5.2g per 100g), and high fiber (7-9g) produces the strongest satiety signal per calorie.

The portion-size override: why 200g of sourdough still derails weight loss

Portion size is the variable that overrides all others. The metabolic advantages of sourdough are meaningful at 50-75g per meal. They become irrelevant at 150-200g per meal.

A 200g serving of sourdough whole wheat contains:

• 490 calories
• 80g carbohydrates
• Glycemic load: 52 × 80 ÷ 100 = 42 (high)
• 12g fiber
• 6-8g resistant starch

Even with the lower glycemic index and resistant starch, a 200g serving produces a substantial insulin response and contributes nearly 25% of a 2,000-calorie daily target. The satiety benefit doesn't scale linearly. A 200g serving doesn't make you twice as full as a 100g serving. It makes you about 30% fuller (diminishing returns on satiety signaling).

The practical implication: if you're eating sourdough in portions above 100g per meal, the type of bread matters less than reducing the portion. A 75g serving of standard whole wheat bread (185 calories, GI 69) produces better weight-loss outcomes than a 200g serving of sourdough (490 calories, GI 52) because the caloric difference outweighs the metabolic difference.

The FormBlends position based on pattern recognition: patients who successfully use bread during weight loss treat it as a vehicle for protein and vegetables, not as the meal's foundation. A 50g slice of sourdough with 100g of turkey and 150g of vegetables is a 350-calorie meal with strong satiety. A 200g sourdough sandwich with 30g of turkey and 20g of cheese is a 650-calorie meal with weaker satiety despite more bread.

How to use sourdough strategically during weight loss

If you're keeping bread in your diet, these strategies maximize sourdough's advantages:

Strategy 1: Cool and store before eating. Bake or buy sourdough, slice it, and refrigerate for 24-48 hours before eating. This maximizes resistant starch formation. Toast it lightly before eating (toasting doesn't reverse resistant starch formation). The resistant starch content increases from 2.1g per 100g (fresh) to 3.8-4.1g per 100g (refrigerated 24+ hours).

Strategy 2: Pair with protein and fat. Eating sourdough with 20-30g of protein and 10-15g of fat further lowers the glycemic response and extends satiety. A 50g slice of sourdough with 2 eggs and avocado has a glycemic index of 38-42 (low) vs 52-58 for the bread alone.

Strategy 3: Time it post-workout. Insulin sensitivity is highest in the 2-hour window after resistance training. Eating sourdough post-workout directs the glucose toward muscle glycogen replenishment rather than fat storage. This doesn't reduce calories but improves nutrient partitioning.

Strategy 4: Use it as a breakfast anchor. Sourdough's lower glycemic index makes it better suited to breakfast than dinner. A low-GI breakfast reduces total daily glycemic load and improves appetite control at subsequent meals (Benton et al., Physiology & Behavior, 2007). A high-GI dinner disrupts sleep quality and increases next-morning hunger.

Strategy 5: Weigh portions. Slices vary from 30g (thin-sliced sandwich bread) to 80g (artisan boule). Weighing portions for 2 weeks calibrates your visual estimation. Most people underestimate bread portions by 30-40%.

Strategy 6: Choose whole-grain sourdough specifically. White-flour sourdough has the glycemic advantage but lacks the fiber that extends satiety. Whole-grain sourdough provides both. Check the ingredient list: "whole wheat flour" or "whole rye flour" should be the first ingredient, not "enriched wheat flour."

FAQ

Is sourdough bread good for weight loss? Sourdough has a 20-30% lower glycemic index than standard bread and contains more resistant starch, which modestly improves satiety and reduces insulin response. These advantages make it marginally better for weight loss, but portion size and total calories matter more than fermentation method. A 50-75g serving is helpful. A 200g serving negates the advantage.

Does sourdough have fewer calories than regular bread? No. Sourdough contains 245-265 calories per 100g, nearly identical to standard bread. The difference is in how the calories are metabolized (lower insulin spike, more resistant starch), not in total energy content.

Why does sourdough have a lower glycemic index? The lactic acid produced during fermentation partially breaks down starch structure, slowing digestion. The lower pH also promotes resistant starch formation when the bread is cooled. These changes reduce the rate of glucose absorption, lowering the glycemic index from 71-75 (standard bread) to 48-54 (sourdough).

How much sourdough can I eat on a diet? For weight loss, limit sourdough to 50-75g per meal (1-1.5 slices), once or twice daily. At this portion, the metabolic advantages are meaningful. Above 100g per meal, the calorie density overrides the glycemic benefit.

Is sourdough better than whole wheat bread for weight loss? Sourdough whole wheat is better than standard whole wheat because it has both the fiber from whole grain and the lower glycemic index from fermentation. Sourdough white bread is better than standard white bread but worse than standard whole wheat. The best option is sourdough whole wheat.

Can I eat sourdough on Ozempic or Wegovy? Yes, but many patients on GLP-1 medications find bread uncomfortable due to delayed gastric emptying. If you tolerate bread, sourdough is the best choice because its lower glycemic index matches the slower digestion. Start with 30-50g portions and eat it with protein.

Does sourdough cause less bloating than regular bread? For some people, yes. The fermentation process partially breaks down gluten and phytic acid, which can reduce bloating in sensitive individuals. However, sourdough still contains gluten and FODMAPs, so people with celiac disease or severe IBS may not tolerate it.

Is store-bought sourdough as good as homemade? It depends. True sourdough requires 12-48 hours of fermentation with wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria. Many commercial "sourdough" breads use a sourdough starter for flavor but add commercial yeast to speed production, reducing fermentation time to 2-4 hours. Check the ingredient list: if it contains "yeast" in addition to "sourdough starter," the metabolic benefits are reduced.

Should I eat sourdough fresh or toasted? For weight loss, refrigerate sourdough for 24 hours after baking or buying, then toast it lightly before eating. This maximizes resistant starch content (which forms during cooling) while improving texture. Fresh sourdough has less resistant starch but is still better than standard bread.

Does sourdough spike blood sugar? Less than standard bread, but yes. Sourdough's glycemic index is 48-54, classified as low-to-medium. A 50g serving raises blood glucose by about 25-30 mg/dL in non-diabetic individuals, compared to 40-50 mg/dL for standard white bread. The spike is smaller but not absent.

Can I eat sourdough every day and still lose weight? Yes, if total daily calories remain in a deficit. Sourdough's advantages are small. If you eat 150g of sourdough daily (370 calories) and maintain a 500-calorie deficit, you'll lose weight. If the sourdough pushes you into a caloric surplus, you won't. Track total intake, not individual foods.

Is sourdough anti-inflammatory? The fermentation process reduces phytic acid and partially breaks down gluten, which may reduce inflammatory markers in sensitive individuals. However, calling sourdough "anti-inflammatory" overstates the evidence. It's less inflammatory than standard bread for some people, not actively anti-inflammatory.

What's the best sourdough bread to buy for weight loss? Look for: (1) "whole wheat flour" or "whole rye flour" as the first ingredient, (2) no added sugar or honey in the top 3 ingredients, (3) at least 3g of fiber per 50g serving, (4) no "yeast" listed separately from "sourdough starter." Pumpernickel sourdough is the optimal choice if available.

Does sourdough help with gut health during weight loss? The resistant starch in sourdough feeds beneficial gut bacteria, producing short-chain fatty acids that support gut barrier function. This is a modest benefit (3-4g resistant starch per 100g). For comparison, a medium potato cooled after cooking contains 10-12g resistant starch. Sourdough contributes to gut health but isn't a primary tool for it.

How does sourdough compare to keto bread for weight loss? Keto bread (almond flour, coconut flour, or egg-based) contains 80-120 calories per 100g and 2-8g of carbohydrates, compared to sourdough's 245 calories and 48g of carbohydrates. For aggressive caloric restriction or ketogenic diets, keto bread is superior. For balanced diets prioritizing satiety and blood sugar control, sourdough whole wheat is superior due to higher fiber and resistant starch.

Sources

1. Liljeberg H et al. Sourdough fermentation improves in vitro starch digestibility and lowers predicted glycemic response. British Journal of Nutrition. 2008.
2. Brighenti F et al. Effect of neutralized and native vinegar on blood glucose and acetate responses to a mixed meal in healthy subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2006.
3. Maioli M et al. Postprandial glucose, insulin, and incretin responses to grain products in healthy subjects. Acta Diabetologica. 2008.
4. Scazzina F et al. Sourdough bread: starch digestibility and postprandial glycemic response. Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases. 2009.
5. Freeland KR et al. Acute effects of inulin and resistant starch on postprandial serum short-chain fatty acids and second-meal glycemic response in lean and overweight humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2010.
6. Chambers ES et al. Effects of targeted delivery of propionate to the human colon on appetite regulation, body weight maintenance and adiposity in overweight adults. Gut. 2015.
7. Gao Z et al. Butyrate improves insulin sensitivity and increases energy expenditure in mice. Nature Communications. 2009.
8. Raben A et al. Resistant starch: the effect on postprandial glycemia, hormonal response, and satiety. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1994.
9. Venn BJ et al. The effect of increasing consumption of pulses and wholegrains in obese people: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2019.
10. Juntunen KS et al. Structural differences between rye and wheat breads but not total fiber content may explain the lower postprandial insulin response to rye bread. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2002.
11. Nauck MA et al. Incretin-based therapies: viewpoints on the way to consensus. Diabetes Care. 2021.
12. Provencher V et al. Perceived healthfulness of food. Impact on the estimation of energy content. Appetite. 2017.
13. Benton D et al. The delivery rate of dietary carbohydrates affects cognitive performance in both rats and humans. Physiology & Behavior. 2007.
14. Davies MJ et al. Tirzepatide versus semaglutide once weekly in patients with type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine. 2021.

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